Humanism introduces
Maslow
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) helped shift psychology from behaviorism to humanism. He is the “father” of the Third Force of Psychology. The first force was Freud’s psychoanalytic approach. The second force or wave was Pavlov’s behaviorism. And the third major force in American psychology was humanism.
Maslow is best known for his hierarchy of needs. Building on the ideas of Henry Murray, Maslow theorized that needs are not all the same. Some needs must be met before others. Like Harlow’s monkeys, people their biological and safety needs met first. After the essentials are met, people can then pursue their psychological and spiritual needs.
D motives (deficit needs) push people to get food, water, shelter and safety. Once these deficits are met, progress can be made on other fronts. Motivation is the push toward satisfying deficits (d needs).
Meta-motivation, on the other hand, is the push toward being (b needs). Our psychological needs push us to seek love, belonging, self-esteem, and self-actualization. According to Maslow, people are inherently good and moving toward growth. We are not the slaves of Freudian drives. We are headed toward the goal of reaching our full potential. This push toward growth is innate. Just as plants grow toward light, people grow to be more integrated, more mature and wiser. We are in the process of “being,” not just existing.
Deficit needs are seeking to establish a more orderly, stable environment. We need food and water to sustain life, and maintain equilibrium. Similarly, we need to satisfy safety needs for our long-term success. If these needs are not met, we will continually try to become safe. We might hoard or over-structure your life. If we don’t fill the deficit, we can’t move on.
When originally presented in 1954, Maslow’s pyramid of needs had five levels: physiological, safety, love-belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. Only self-actualization represented B-needs; the first four levels of the pyramid were D-needs. In his revised pyramid (1970), three more B-need levels are included. He wanted to include the need to acquire and understand knowledge (cognitive needs), and the need to create and experience beauty, balance and structure (aesthetic needs). So cognitive needs and aesthetic needs were inserted above esteem needs but below self-actualization. Finally, a new level (transcendence) was added to the pyramid’s top. If self-actualization is reaching your own potential, transcendence is helping other reach their full potential. It transcends beyond the person and beyond ego. It’s helping others become more enlightened and empowered. It is striving for the fullest potential of the human race.
Maslow assumed that the higher needs could only be met after the basic ones had been satisfied. An extension of his philosophy into social policy might be to solve world hunger before world peace. Hunger would take precedence over safety, and safety would take precedence over love and belonging. According to this view, people cannot find love and belonging until their physical and safety needs are met.
Although Maslow didn’t invent the idea of self-actualization, he certainly popularized the term. For him, self-actualization was people at their best. It was the ultimate in human development, the best one could possibly be. It was both a process and the ultimate goal. Self-actualization wasn’t simply what one did once in their life. It was how people should best live their lives.
To help define it, Maslow selected people he thought represented this ideal. The list included: Abraham Lincoln, Albert Einstein, Thomas Jefferson, Mahatma Gandhi, and William James. Eleanor Roosevelt made the list but FDR didn’t. It wasn’t an exhaustive list, more of a sampling of personal favorites.
To understand self-actualization, Maslow read the biographies and writings of those he thought modeled it. From his investigation, he developed a list of qualities that would define one as self-actualized. Self-actualized people are reality-centered (genuine, not fake), problem-centered (solution seekers, not blamers or quitters), and process-centered (means oriented, not using ends to justify the means). Self-actualized people relate to others authentically. They resist social pressure, rely on their own judgment, and set their own direction. Although the self-actualized have intimate personal relationships with family and a few close friends, they enjoy their own company and don’t mind being alone. They are open to diversity, compassionate for others, and hold democratic values. They accept you as you are, and don’t try to change you into what they think you should be. They are able to laugh at themselves, and are not pretentious or moody.
Maslow would not want you to think that self-actualizers are perfect. They’re not. Often they have considerable guilt and anxiety…but it’s realistic guilt and anxiety, not neurotic guilt and anxiety. And they can have moments of ruthlessness and bad humor…but it doesn’t last long. And they can be absentminded or overly kind.
All right, so maybe that does sounds like perfection.
But for Maslow, striving for perfection is okay. People are self-perfecting systems. The self is intrinsically good and gradually getting better. It grows toward perfection as its needs are met. These needs are organized in a hierarchy where lower needs must be met before higher needs. As people growth, they must satisfy the strong needs caused by biological and psychological deficits before they work on the weaker but more growth oriented needs of self-esteem and self-actualization.
Everyone has those mystical moments in life when you feel both infinitely small and eternally connected. You go to the ocean or mountains, and feel both more alone and more connected. Self-actualized people have more of “peak experiences” than the rest of us.
Like Freud, Maslow based his conclusions on logical arguments, not empirical data. His “armchair philosopher” approach was theoretical and deductive. He offered no proof for his assertions; no experiments, no naturalistic observations, and no clinical data. So it’s not surprising that there are inconsistencies in his model. Many examples can be given of situations that don’t fit Maslow’s model. People who are poor or hungry do show love and affection. Happiness does not seem to be confined to rich countries. Maslow’s theory doesn’t explain why police, fire fighters, military, missionaries, and Peace Corp workers regularly give up safety and physiological needs in order to help others.
Also like Freud, an inconsistent theory doesn’t make Maslow’s approach unhelpful or unpopular. Maslow highlights what behaviorist ignored. He emphasizes the importance of love, self-esteem and personal fulfillment. Instead of stimuli eliciting reflexes, Maslow suggests that people can think, have goals, and strive to reach their full potential. Instead of external rewards and punishments, people have an internal need to be creative, social and productive. None of these ideas were included in behaviorism.
Maslow is also in sharp contrast to Freud. Instead of an unconscious id making self-pleasuring wishes, people are active processors. They respect themselves and others. They seek intimate relationships and enjoy being part of a group. And instead of reacting to neurotic needs, people seek growth, health and self-actualization. Maslow is much more optimistic than Freud.
Maslow’s approach is not without problems. The theory does not specify how or when to declare someone as self-actualized, nor does it indicate which famous, powerful, successful people should be categorized as non-actualized. Also, why does it take time to acquire self-actualization? Wouldn’t Maslow’s description of a self-actualized person describe any infant? Is there anyone more authentic than a baby?
The basic problem with Maslow’s hierarchy is that there are many people who regularly give up safety needs to meet higher needs. Poets and artists starve for beauty. Police officers, fire fighters and the military regularly put their lives at risk. And don’t doctors, parents and teachers put the welfare of others before their own needs? As a predictor of behavior, Maslow’s hierarchy doesn’t seem hold up.
According to Maslow, people overcome loneliness because they have a need for love, affection and belongingness. But that’s a circular argument: people can only satisfy higher needs if they meet lower needs first; you know they’ve met lower needs because they are working on higher needs. Giving love and affection are normal human activities because they satisfy the need to connect with others; we know there is a need to connect to others because people give love and affection.
Finally, the theory isn’t clear on how people move from level to level. He believes the reason we don’t all reach self-actualization is that society hinders our growth. He recommends children should be taught how to be authentic. He also maintains that we fear self-knowledge (the Jonah complex). So is moving up the hierarchy the result of training, removing societal influences, overcoming personal hindrances, or somehow stimulating natural growth? Maslow doesn’t specify the mechanisms of change.
Maslow’s theory does infer principles of social policy. If people need air before water, and water before food, there is an implied proper order to helping others. If Maslow’s theory is applied to the solving world problems, it would suggest that people must be fed before they are helped with growth needs. This might suggest that democracy could not occur in poor countries, or at least not until people’s basic needs were met. Some might argue that the maxim would be food before art. But others might hold that it would not necessarily mean food before dignity. The great advantage of an ambiguous theory is that it can be interpreted in many ways.
Rogers
More than anyone else, Carl Rogers (1902-1987) invented counseling. The vast numbers of counseling psychologists, marriage-family therapist and other mental health professionals are the product of his humanistic approach to therapy.
Like Freud, Rogers believed that actual experiences become symbolized. These symbolized experiences reflect all the characteristics of the actual experiences without all of the detail. It’s not so much what you experienced in the past as it is how you interpreted or feel about it.
In contrast to Freud’s distant, impersonal psychoanalysis, Rogers created an atmosphere of connection, warmth and acceptance. The emphasis was turned treating abnormal conditions to helping normal people with everyday problems. It went from impersonal medical terminology to less intimidating language. Patients became clients. Analysis became therapy or counseling. Rogers made counseling accessible.
And he changed the emphasis from analyzing defense systems to focusing on the client. Originally, Rogers called his approach “nondirective” therapy. The assumption was that clients were given no direction at all; they had complete control over the sessions. But, of course, Rogers did give subtle direction, so he later changed to a more accurate description of “client centered” therapy. Therapy should focus on the needs and goals of the client, not a pre-determined goal of the therapist. Consequently, a client-centered therapist is relatively weak (doesn’t give advice or homework) but guides the client toward self discovery.
Rogers stressed the importance of client-therapist relationship. The therapist should actively develop a strong relationship with the client through active listening, clarification and paraphrasing. This friendly attitude was in direct contrast to psychoanalysis, behaviorism and most other approaches. For Rogers, setting a warm, friendly environment was key to counseling success. Relationship allows clients to open up, put down their defenses, and feel safe. In the safety of a confidential relationship, clients could, many for the first time, experience unconditional positive regard.
Rogers differentiates between conditional positive regard and unconditional positive regard (total acceptance). In conditional positive regard, love is contingent on meeting a standard. “I will love you if…” Or often, “If you loved me, you’d….” When people make love contingent on your doing something for them (meeting their needs, acting according to their standards, etc.) their love is not fully free. In unconditional positive regard, you are accepted for you are; just the way you are.
Rogers assumed that people are basically good and mentally healthy. Although there are anomalies (mental illness, criminality, etc.), the natural tendency is toward growth and normalcy. The primary tendency is to maintain, enhance and grow. Growth is not automatic or effortless but it is the most likely outcome.
The key to understanding people is to understand the individual’s phenomenological field. Each person has their own perception of reality. So reality must be interpreted on an individual basis. An event is not as important as the individual’s interpretation of it.
It’s a relatively simple theory but can be widely applied. The short version is that reality isn’t as important as experience. Or, in reverse, what you see is more important that what exists. Your view-your unique take on the world-is important to understanding who you are.
Think of phenomenology as a house surrounded by miles of land. The house has several windows, each with its own unique view. How you experience reality depends on which window you use. Your view is restricted to size and shape of the window frame. Your “frame of reference” determines what you actually see. Reality may be objective (the collection of all the possible views) but each view is a limited and subjective interpretation of that reality.
In phenomenology, the events that occur in reality are not as important as how they are perceived by an individual viewer. The emphasis is not on what the various views share but on the individuality of each person’s perception. According to this view, it doesn’t matter if people are trying to harm you. What matters is what you think people are trying to do.
For Rogers, behavior is the result of people trying to reach goals. People try to meet their needs (as they perceive them), so how you feel about your needs, your life and yourself matters. Fortunately, there is an unconscious process (the organismic valuing process) that leads us toward productive growth. Although not well defined, this growth process provides intrinsically growth-producing experiences.
It’s not clear how this valuing process works or where it comes from. Presumably is a natural, innate process that doesn’t need to be activated or controlled. It does, however, need to be protected. According to Rogers, the organismic valuing process works very well, as long as it is not incapacitated by too many external rules and social values.
Emotions play a large role in Roger’s theory. The summary is: “Emotions facilitate behavior. ” That is, we act because we feel. So if we want to change how we act, we have to experience how we feel. In therapy, clients are encouraged to get in touch with their feelings and to express them. For many Rogerians, therapy is not a success unless the client feels deeply enough to cry.
In contrast to Freud’s id, ego and superego, Rogers is a self theorist. He believes that self gradually emerges, particularly from interactions with our significant others. We learn to become ourselves by interacting with others. We learn to love by experiencing love. We learn accept ourselves by being accepted by others.
Although others may only see our perceived self, we develop our own view of who we are: our “actual self”. The actual self is what we actually do; how we act from day to day. The perceived self (as perceived by others) may be that at night we read French literature by a roaring fire. But we know that our actual self eats chips and watches TV. The more our perceived self and actual self match, the more “congruent” our sense of self. In this context, congruence is the synthesis of self. Growth is combining the ideal self (who you want to be), the actual self (how you see yourself) and the real self (what you actually do) into a congruent whole.
Congruence also is the absence of inner tension. A congruent person is consistent and psychological well adjusted. When the perceived and real self differ, our experiences and emotions are ignored, distorted, and symbolized. This distortion process is subconscious, not unconscious. Subconscious suggests out of consciousness. In contrast, Freud’s unconscious suggests unresolved guilt and biological urges.
Parents should accept a child’s feelings, and shouldn’t threaten their self-concept. Self concept is a small but differentiated part of a person’s phenomological field. Although it comes, in part, through interacting with others, self concept is an object of perception: how we view ourselves. It is what we think our values are, which can be quite different from what our values actually are.
The disconnect between our real values and our self concept results in our experiencing anxiety. To avoid that anxiety, we often distort our view of reality (tell ourselves that society is not trying to influence us) or use denial (we are a rock that is uninfluenced by society).
Roger’s treatment for anxiety was to give unconditional positive regard. Unlike the conditioning love often given by parents (“You’re great if you do what you should do”), the therapist should give unconditional positive regard (“You’re great, no matter who you are”).
People have two basic needs: (a) positive regard by others, and (b) positive regard by self. Positive regard means being loved and accepted. Self-regard is loving yourself. For Rogers, positive self-regard is a natural consequence of receiving unconditional positive regard. To love you, someone else has to love you first.
When you have love (from others and of yourself), you have the foundation for becoming a fully functioning person. Rogers sees five aspects that characterize being “fully functioning.” First, you should be open to experience. Willing to try new things but also maximally enjoying the things you encounter. You don’t have to try every new cookie that comes your way but you should open yourself to experiencing the goodness of those you do sample.
Second, a fully functional person has experiential freedom. Instead of restricting your reactions or filtering your thoughts, you should experience live as it is. Don’t over think. Don’t restrict your emotions. Refuse to be uptight, overburdened and encumbered. Be free.
Third, live now. Live existentially. Existential living puts the focus on “here and now.” If you’re happy, be happy; don’t destroy your happiness by worrying about the way things could have been. Enjoy life as it is and as it comes.
Fourth, learn to trust yourself. This “organismic trust” unfolds over time. As you discover your competence, you learn to rely more on your judgment. No one knows your life as well as you do, so trust your instincts. Trust your real self, the inner you.
Fifth, a fully functioning person is creative. For Rogers, everyone is creative. You don’t have to draw, sculpt or paint. Creativity can be seen in your attitudes toward work, sports, politics, and virtually any activity. Being willing to look at life from different viewpoints. Try different options. Think outside the triangle (I wanted to be creative).
To help people become “fully functional,” Rogers developed a therapy that gives the client the freedom and responsibility of directing therapy. Originally entitled “nondirective therapy,” the idea is that the therapist should not impose on the growth tendencies and directionalness of the client.
Notice that it is “client,” not “patient.” Rogers believed that therapy should be as approachable as possible. Anyone and everyone should feel free to come to “counseling” because they aren’t sick (patients) but simply seeking help (clients).
For Rogers, behavior is learned, consequently symptoms (pathological behaviors) are learned. But Rogers doesn’t offer a learning theory to explain how to divert behaviors are originally learned, nor does he specify how learning new behaviors occurs. His theory operates on a higher level.
Rogers focuses on the macro aspects of education than the mirco processes of learning. The therapist-client relationship is like that of teacher-student. And therapy is a learning situation. But the key to personal growth is emotional, not rational. Growth will automatically occur when a client feels unconditional positive regard, expresses their emotions, and clarifies their feelings. It is the clients’ responsibility to direct the progress of therapy, to reach their own conclusions, and solve their own problems. It is the responsibility of therapists to provide a warm, accepting environment, and intervene only as much as is necessary to keep the client focused on their emotions.
Mind Map
Notes
Abraham Harold Maslow (1908-1970)
- Life
Born April 1, 1908, Brooklyn, NY
Oldest of seven; Russian immigrants
Moved from slums to lower-middle class (only Jewish boy in neighborhood)
Not close to either parent
Father worked a lot
Mother was schizophrenic: punished at least provocation; didn’t attend her funeral
Studied law at the City College of New York, 3 semesters
Transferred to Cornell, back to CCNY
He married Bertha Goodman, his first cousin, against his parents wishes
University of Wisconsin
Interested in psychology; school work improved dramatically
Worked with Harry Harlow: baby rhesus monkeys and attachment behavior
1935, returned to New York
worked with E. L. Thorndike at Columbia
became interested in research on human sexuality
Taught Brooklyn College; met Adler, Fromm, Horney, etc.
1951-1961, Brandeis
met Kurt Goldstein; introduced him to the idea of self-actualization
began to advocate humanistic psychology
- Approach
Behaviorism = practical way to improve society
Birth of his first daughter “thunderclap”
Turned from behaviorism
Emphasized the positive side of human nature
Human being as a “wanting animal”
Humanistic psychology; “3rd Force”
Inner force to fulfill potential
Each person is unique
Ideal self vs. real self
- Theory
Motivation versus Meta-motivation
Motivation = reducing tension by satisfying deficit states or lacks;
D-needs; deficit needs; physical survival
Meta-motivation = growth tendencies;
B-needs; being needs; drive to self-actualize and fulfill inherent potential;
D-needs take precedence B-needs
- Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Physiological
Safety = orderly, stable, predictable world
Belonging and love = affection, intimate relationships, feel part of group
Self-esteem = 2 kinds: respect from other and self-respect
Self-Actualized
- Self actualization
Picked out a group of people; some historical figures, some people he knew
Included:
Abraham Lincoln
Thomas Jefferson
Mahatma Gandhi
Eleanor Roosevelt
Benedict Spinoza
Albert Einstein
William James
Studied their lives; biographies, writings, etc
- Characteristics
reality-centered: could differentiate what is fake from genuine
problem-centered: life’s difficulties as problems demanding solutions;
not as personal troubles to be railed at or surrendered to
different perception of means and ends; ends don’t necessarily justify the means
means could be ends themselves; the journey was often more important than the ends
different way of relating to others
need for privacy and comfortable being alone
independent of culture and environment; relying on their own experiences and judgment
resisted enculturation; not susceptible to social pressure; nonconformists in the best sense.
intimate personal relations; few close friends and family members
Gemeinschaftsgefühl; social interest, compassion, humanity; democratic values,
open to ethnic and individual variety
unhostile sense of humor; joke at their own expense
acceptance of self & others; not try change you into what you should be;
take you as you are
spontaneity and simplicity; preferred being themselves, not pretentious
freshness of appreciation; ability to see ordinary things with wonder
creative, inventive, and original
more peak experiences: feeling of being part of the infinite and the eternal;
takes you out of yourself; makes you feel very tiny; mystical experiences
self-actualizers are not perfect:
considerable anxiety and guilt but realistic anxiety and guilt
absentminded
overly kind
unexpected moments of ruthlessness, surgical coldness and loss of humor
- Psychopathology and Treatment
Symptoms of pathology are learned
Treatment should be a learning situation; adaptive behaviors and cognitions are taught
Therapist-client relationship is viewed as being similar to a teacher-student relationship - Self is
the most important being
the center of one’s universe
second to no others
intrinsically good
self-perfecting
- Needs
Hierarchically organized; lower levels before higher needs
Lower needs are more powerful & pressing; more primitive; deficiency-based
Higher needs are weaker, or subtle; more human; growth-based
- Criticisms
Vague concepts: self-actualization, fully-functioning person
Too much free will
Psychology should be like physics: perfect prediction
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
- Life
Born January 8, 1902, Oak Park, Illinois, suburb of Chicago
4th of 6 kids
Father = civil engineer
Mother = devoted Christian
1914, moved to farm 30 miles west of Chicago
Self-disciplined, isolated, chores
His family gave him a lot of direction as he grew up
Attended U of Wisconsin: agriculture major, switched to religion
1 of 10 selected to attend World Student Christian Federation Conference, China
Graduated from college
Married Helen Elliot (against his parents’ wishes)
Attended Union Theological Seminary
- Approach
People are basically good (healthy)
Mental health is the norm
Mental illness, criminality, etc are distortions of natural tendency
A relatively simple theory
Phenomonology
Each individual exists in center of phenomonal field
Emphasis on individual’s perception of reality
How it is perceived by the individual
The event itself is not important
Primary tendency of organism is to maintain, actualize and enhance itself
not automatic or effortless process
Behavior is goal-directed attempt of organism to meet its needs as it perceives them
Emotions facilitate behavior
Experiences are intrinsically growth-producing
An organismic valuing process subconsciously guides toward productive growth experiences
Provided that it has not been overlaid with external rules and social values. - Self
Self gradually emerges from the interaction with significant others
Real self vs self as perceived
Experiences are symbolized, ignored, dined or distorted, become subconscious
Parent shouldn’t threaten integrity of child’s self-concept
accept the child’s feeling of satisfaction
accept the child’s feelings that certain actions are inappropriate
- Types of Self
Ideal Self: How you want to be
Actual Self: How see yourself
Real Self: How you act from day to day
Congruence of Self
Incongruence of Self
- Self-concept
A portion of the phenomonal field that has gradually become differentiated
Comes in part through others; the potential for dissocaitve or estrangement exists
Self-concept is the object of perception
Basic human drive is to be a fully functioning person,
who lives by his/her values and not society’s/parents’ values
Self-concept is what we think our values are, but this might not reflect reality
If real values and our self-concept disagree, feel anxiety & use defense mechanisms,
including distortion (society is not trying to influence us) and d
enial (society is not succeeding in influencing us)
we subconsciously “know” it’s not true, so we feel unhappy.
To alleviate anxiety, Rogers used client-centered therapy:
unconditional positive regard (i.e. “You’re great no matter who you are”),
not conditional positive regard received (“You’re great only if do the right things)
- Congruence
Symbolized experiences reflect all actual experiences
When congruent, person is free from inner tension and psychologically adjusted
- 2 basic needs
positive regard by others
positive regard by self
Positive regard = being loved and accepted for who one is
unconditional positive regard
conditional positive regard
Positive self-regard follows automatically when receive unconditional positive regard
5 characteristics of a fully functioning person
Openness to experience
Experiential freedom
Existential living
Organismic trust
Creativity
- Theory
“Nondirective therapy” therapy (original name)
Client was given no direction at all
Choice of topic was up to client
“Client centered therapy”
Later, modified approach
Stressed client-therapist relationship
Stressed importance of “unconditional regard” (total acceptance; warm, friendly)
- Psychopathology and Treatment
Symptoms of pathology are learned; all behavior is learned
Treatment is a learning situation
Adaptive behaviors and cognitions are taught
Therapist-client relationship is like teacher-student relationship
Becoming a fully functioning person
Unconditional positive regard
- Therapy
Focus on the client’s topics of discussion
Clarify feelings
Restatement of content
Client is responsible for therapy’s progress, own conclusions, solve own problems
Terms
Maslow
- 3rd Force
- being needs
- belonging and love
- b-needs
- comfortable being alone
- deficit needs
- d-needs
- Gemeinschaftsgefühl
- hierarchy of needs
- humanistic psychology
- ideal self vs. real self
- independent of culture
- meta-motivation
- motivation
- peak experiences
- physiological needs
- problem-centered
- reality-centered
- safety needs
- self actualization
- self-esteem
- social interest
- wanting animal
Rogers
- actual self
- clarify feelings
- client-centered therapy
- conditional positive regard
- congruence of affection and action
- congruence of self
- creativity
- differentiation of field
- emotions facilitate behavior
- existential living
- experiences are intrinsically growth-producing
- experiential freedom
- fully functioning person
- ideal self
- mental health
- nondirective therapy
- object of perception
- openness to experience
- organismic trust
- organismic valuing process
- phenomonal field
- phenomonology
- positive regard
- real self
- received from parents
- reflection
- self
- self-concept
- unconditional positive regard
Quiz
Which did Maslow describe as the 3rd force of psychology:
- a. humanistic psychology
- b. behavioral psychology
- c. existential psychology
- d. Freudian psychology
2. According to Rogers, the direction of therapy is determined by:
- a. constructive alternativism
- b. concrete constructs
- c. abstract constructs
- d. the client
3. For Maslow, feeling like you are “a part of the infinite” is called:
- a. grounding experience
- b. unifying experience
- c. peak experience
- d. congruence
4. For Maslow, physical survival comes from:
- a. A needs
- b. B needs
- c. C needs
- d. D needs
5. For Rogers, the goal of therapy is to:
- a. break through defense mechanisms
- b. fix defense mechanisms
- c. clarify emotions
- d. joy
a1. Which did Maslow describe as the 3rd force of psychology:
- a. humanistic psychology
- b. behavioral psychology
- c. existential psychology
- d. Freudian psychology
2. According to Rogers, the direction of therapy is determined by:
- a. constructive alternativism
- b. concrete constructs
- c. abstract constructs
- d. the client
3. For Maslow, feeling like you are “a part of the infinite” is called:
- a. grounding experience
- b. unifying experience
- c. peak experience
- d. congruence
4. For Maslow, physical survival comes from:
- a. A needs
- b. B needs
- c. C needs
- d. D needs (deficit)
5. For Rogers, the goal of therapy is to:
- a. break through defense mechanisms
- b. fix defense mechanisms
- c. clarify emotions
- d. joy
