American Psychology developed cooperatively and independently from French, German or Russian psychology. William James started a lab at the same time or earlier than Wundt but investigated a wider range of topics. It could also be argued that James was more scientific, since he didn’t rely on introspection.
But the birth of psychology wasn’t restricted to one country. Many countries were involved. However, there is no doubt that the United States spent more money, trained more people and embraced it more fully than anyone else. Here is a quick overview of some of the key players in American Psychology.
James, William (1842-1910)
Best known for his philosophy of pragmatism, William James helped redirect psychology into greater concern with higher mental functioning.
Educated as was befitting of a rich young man (private schools, extended periods in Europe), William and his younger brother Henry (who became a famed novelist) had all of the advantages of wealth and all of the disadvantages of a tyrannical father.
Although trained as a medical doctor, James taught philosophy at Harvard (1872). Similarly, he was not an experimentalist, and yet began what could arguably be called the first laboratory devoted to the study of psychology. In 1875 (four years before Wundt), Harvard gave him $300 to buy experimental equipment, but James did not have an overriding theoretical perspective to make his efforts a laboratory. Essentially, James was always a philosophy and occasionally a psychologist.
For more on James, check out Waves & Schools.
Dewey, John (1859-1952).
Born in Burlington, Vermon, John Dewey taught high school before receiving his Ph.D. in philosophy from Johns Hopkins (1884). After teaching at the U of Michigan, U of Minnesota, and the U of Chicago, Dewey spent the last 27 years at Columbia (he retired in 1931). An educational reformer at heart, Dewey’s psychology, like that of William James, emphasized practical functions of the mind. He held that a psychological act can’t be broken into elemental parts. Learning not to touch a hot flame is an entire adaptive function, and is not reducible to its component parts.
Cattell, James McKeen (1860-1944).
Born and raised in Easton, Pennsylvania, James McKeen Cattell attended Lafayette College, where his father (a minister) taught Latin and Greek. Following his graduation in 1880, he traveled several times to Europe for further study. In 1883, Cattell received his PhD under Wundt. He also spent a 2 year fellowship at Cambridge with Galton.
Although a student of Wundt and founder of the first psychology laboratory for undergraduates, James Cattell was more influenced by Galton’s testing than Wundt’s experiments. Best known for coining the term “mental tests,” Cattell maintained that intelligence can be measured by sensory-motor tests (such as reaction time and hand strength). He proposed 50 tests be used for college entrance and 10 tests (a subset of the 50) be used for measuring intelligence in the general public. His efforts failed, however, because there was little correlation between the tests and no evidence that they could predict college success.
Cattell proves that not everyone has to be a great researcher or theoretician in order to impact psychology. A great organizer, Cattell founded Science Press, the Psychological Corporation, and the American Association of University Professors. In 1894, he and James Baldwin founded the journal Psychological Review. Cattell also founded, edited or owned the American Naturalist, School & Society, Science and Popular Science Monthly. He was involved in the founding of the American Psychological Association, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Cattell returned to the University of Pennsylvania and established the first psychology laboratory for undergraduates. In 1891, he moved to Columbia and remained there for 26 years. His application of psychology to education gave functionalism a practical usefulness that can be seen in the works of his students, including Woodworth and Thorndike. Cattell’s use of statistics and his emphasis on the importance of testing helped lead psychology toward an increased reliance of quantification.
Calkins, Mary Whiton (1863-1930)
Noted for her contributions to experimental psychology, personality theory and philosophy, Mary Calkins (1863-1930) strove to reconcile structural and functional psychology.
She created the paired associate procedure, established one of the first psychology labs in the United States, and studied emotions, dreams, color perception, memory, and the attributes of sensation.
Born in Hartford (Connecticut), Calkins grew up in Buffalo (New York) and graduated high school outside of Boston (Newton, Massachusetts). Her father was a minister and very interested in the education of his children. Mary, the eldest of five, entered Smith in 1882, graduating in 1885 with a double major in philosophy and classical languages.
After graduation, Mary and her family took an extended tour through Europe. Upon her return in 1887, Calkins tutored Greek at Wellesley, not far from the family home. In 1895, she accepted a faculty position and remained at Wellesley until her retirement in 1927.
In opposition to the behaviorism of the time, Calkins conceived a theory of “self-psychology.” She emphasized self as an active participant in the creation of one’s psychological reality. According to Calkins, self is not a passive receptor of sensations but an active expression of will.
In philosophy, her system of “personalistic absolutism” builds on Josiah Royce’s religion of loyalty and on Hegel’s absolute truth. According to this view, we are a part of the universal mind (logos), which gives both moral and natural order to the universe. The mind is the true reality and the highest good is a person’s devotion to a cause. Although scientific description of the natural order is valuable, it is secondary to the appreciation of the truth beyond ourselves and our loyalty to the world-wide community.
Although Calkins completed the work for a Ph.D., she was never formally admitted as a student at Harvard (which was a men’s college at the time) and was never granted a degree. Although allowed to “sit in” on lectures, even this informal arrangement was met with opposition from the administration. In 1902, Calkins was offered a PhD from Radcliffe, the women’s college associated with Harvard) but declined.
In a time when women were not highly valued for their intellects, Calkins was surprisingly successful. Although she invented the paired-associate technique, Titchener tried to claim credit for it. Although she pioneered a psychology of self, Allport (who at first gave her credit for her ideas) didn’t cite her contributions. And yet Calkins not only served as president of the American Psychological Society but also was elected president of the American Philosophical Association. In addition to her theoretical contributions, she established one of the first experimental psychology labs in the country. And perhaps most telling, her general psychology textbook was widely used, even at universities that would not have accepted her as a student.
Angell, James Rowland (1867-1949).
Having studied with both Dewey and James, Angell developed the laboratory at the Univerisy of Chicago into a major training program. Coming from a long line of college presidents, Angell studied with Dewey (at Michigan) and James (at Harvard). After chairing the psychology department at the University of Chicago for 25 years, Angell became the president of Yale (1921).
Woodworth, Robert (1869-1962)
Educated at Amherst, Harvard and Columbia, Robert Woodworth is best known for his S-O-R paradigm. In contrast to the behaviorist’s S-R (stimulus-response) model, Woodworth’s “dynamic psychology” insisted that the organism plays an important part in the process (S-O-R).
Although interested in cause-effect relationships, Woodworth noted that consciousness and other aspects of the individual were important for an understanding of how and why people behave as they do. For Woodworth, any model of behavior must include mechanism (how things are done) and drive (why things are done).
During WWI, Woodworth applied his ideas to the development of the Personal Data Sheet. Essentially the first large scale personality inventory, the PDS was used to predict the emotional stability of soldiers in combat.
Small, Willard S (1870=1943)
In 1901, he invented the animal maze. It became the first practical way to systematically test animal responses, and has been widely used to study physiological and psychological issues (including motivation, learning, and memory).
Carr, Harvey (1873-1954).
Following Angell as head of the psychology department at the University of Chicago, Harvey A. Carr still used introspection but more behavioral in approach than many functionalists. Using introspection and observation, Carr studied thinking, emotion and adaptive behavior. He maintained that an “adaptive act” has 3 characteristics: a motivating stimulus, a sensory stimulus, and a response which adjusts life to meet the requirements set by the motivating stimulus. Thinking, then, is the substitution of ideas for motivating stimuli, and emotions are physiological readjustments to the environment.
Holt, Edwin B (1873-1946)
In contrast to Watson sequencing of conditioned bonds, Edwin B. Holt proposed learning is a “specific response relationship.” For Watson, each step is tied to the previous one; for Holt, walking was a molar event. Indeed, he held that most behavior is purposive and meaningful.
Thorndike, Edward (1874-1949)
Born in Willamsburg, Massachusetts, Edward Lee Thorndike attended Wesleyan University, and studied under James as Harvard. His initial animal studies used chickens as subjects but Thorndike’s landlady objected to their presence in his room.
After James unsuccessfully tried to find additional lab space at Harvard, he allowed his basement to be used as Thorndike’s lab. The James’ children were delighted with that solution, and volunteered to feed and play with the animals.
Although Thorndike took his two best chickens with him to Columbia, he soon turned his attention to the puzzle-solving abilities of cats and dogs in puzzle-boxes. Thorndike’s contention was that learning is the process of creating S-R connections (“bonds”). According to him, learning is not insight but trial and error attempts to find the correct response. Once the correct response is discovered it is “stamped in.”
In contrast to the belief that a human mind should be trained (with good literature, etc.), Thorndike proposed three laws of learning: readiness, exercise and effect. The Law of Readiness held that the subject must be able and ready to perform the task (the cat must be hungry, the child ready to read).
The Law of Exercise proposed that practice strengthens bonds and disuse weakens bonds. The Law of Effect noted that the consequences of a behavior strength (or weaken) the S-R bonds. The great satisfaction experienced, the greater the bond strength. With great dissatisfaction (punishment), the bonds are “stamped out.” According to Thorndike, punishment doesn’t always stamp out bonds but rewards always help strengthen bonds.
In place of the trained mind approach to education, Thorndike advocated the “transfer of training.” According to his theory, learning new tasks is related to how similar they are to previously learned tasks. That is, transfer depends on how many identical elements are held in common.
Similarly, Thorndike’s definition of intelligence is the amount of transfer capacity. He identified three types of intelligence: abstract, social and mechanical. Abstract intelligence is show by the manipulation of words, concepts and symbols. Social intelligence is required for tact and leadership, and mechanical intelligence is shown in the ability to use tools and machines. There is no general mental ability as far as Thorndike was concerned.
In Thorndike’s later years, the Law of Exercise was modified to include feedback. Learning is not blind practice but practice with immediate feedback. Thorndike applied many of his ideas to education, and was a leader in school reform.
Yerkes, Robert Mearns (1876-1956)
Best known for his work with apes, Yerkes was the premier psychobiologist of his time. Prior to founding Yerkes Laboratories of Primate Biology, he taught at Harvard and the University of Minnesota. Yerkes also was responsible for testing army draftees in WWI and the creation of Army Alpha and Beta tests.
Terman, Lewis (1877-1956)
Born on a farm in central Indiana (12th of 14 kids), Terman began his education in a 1-room school and ended with a Ph.D. from Clark University. Suffering from tuberculosis, he took became a school principal in San Bernadino, California (for its warm climate) and taught at a local teacher’s college (which later became UCLA).
In 1910, Terman accepted a position at Stanford, where he stayed until 1942. It was at Stanford that Terman learned of Binet and Simon’s intelligence test. Finding the scoring uneven, Terman revised and Americanized the test. In the 1916 revision, known as Stanford-Binet, Terman coined the term “intelligence ratio,” and suggested it be multiplied by 100 for the “IQ.”
Terman embarked on a longitudinal study of 1470 gifted children (average IQ was 151; average age was 11). Contrary to the popular that gifted children end up losers (“early ripe, early rot”), he found that most became college graduates, and many obtained advanced degrees.
To popularize the view of gifted-is-good, Terman helped establish a TV game show (Quiz Kids) to show how good looking, well mannered and friendly intelligent children were. Fortunately, the revelation that the show was rigged didn’t occur until after Terman’s death.
Watson, John (1878-1958)
Born in Greenville, S Carolina, Watson was a student of both Angell and Loeb but was greatly influenced by the writings of Pavlov. Applying the principles of classical conditioning to all learning, Watson became the focal point of behaviorism.
From white rats in mazes to “Little Albert,” Watson emphasized S-R conditioning. Ignoring high mental processes altogether, Watson explained all behavior in terms of stimulus-response.
Although he initially allowed for three innate emotions (fear, rage and love), Watson generally denied the influence of heredity on behavior. He initially maintained that some instincts are present, changed to their appearing only in infants, and finally rejected instincts completely. Watson also rejected Thorndike’s law of effect (too subjective), and proposed that thinking was nothing more than subvocalized speech.
Watson’s emphasis on S-R connections has not lasted as long as his insistence on observable behavior. Describing the mind as a mystery box, Watson directed psychology’s attention away from speculative theories to experimental observations.
Watson differentiated between overt learned behavior (talking, etc.), and overt unlearned behavior (digestion, etc.). He characterized thinking as covert learned behavior; covert because it was subvocalized, learned because it was speech. Last, reflexes represented covert and unlearned behavior.
In an attempt to apply behaviorism to practical problems, Watson proposed “experimental ethics,” a classical conditioning rehabilitation program for inmates. Assuming that personality was nothing more than a collection of habits, Watson’s program aimed to change habitual antisocial behaviors.
In 1920, Watson achieved fame of a different sort. Sued by his wife for divorce (he had been having an affair with his lab assistant, Rosalie Raynor), Watson was forced to resign from Johns Hopkins. He turned to commercial advertising and pioneered the area of marketing research.
Hull, Clark (1884-1954)
Clark Leonard Hull had a tough childhood. In his late teens, an outbreak of typhoid fever took the lives of several of his classmates. Then, at the age of 24, Hull contracted polio, which precipitated his change from mining engineer to psychologist.
Hull was skilled at inventing equipment his needed to perform an experiment. For a study on the effect of tobacco on performance, he designed a system for delivering heated air (tobacco and tobacco filled) to the subjects so they would not know which experimental treatment they were receiving. Similarly, Hull constructed a machine to calculate inter-item correlations for a series of studies he performed on aptitude testing.
Not surprisingly, Hull believed that people are basically machines. His complex theory of learning is a combination of Newton’s deductive method, Pavlov’s classical conditioning, and Euclidean geometry. For Hull, experimental observations were validity checks on the internal postulates he had previously deduced.
Hull’s Hypothetico-Deductive Theory includes habit strength (the tendency to respond), evenly spaced trials, and reinforcement. Using inferred state and intervening variables, Hull described learning as an interactive system of probabilities.
Too complex for many and too theoretical for others, Hull was a pioneer in using animal research to generalize to human behavior. Despite his poor eyesight and poor health, Hull set a standard of experimental excellent and theoretical integrity which still serves as a model today.
Tolman, Edward (1886-1959)
Born in Newton, Massachusetts, Edward Chace Tolman received his undergraduate degree in chemistry from MIT. Impressed by James writings, Tolman changed to psychology (earning his Ph.D. at Harvard). Best known for introducing the term “intervening variables,” he also was a pioneer investigate of cognitive maps.
Although he had no systematic theory, Tolman called himself a purposeful behaviorist. He held that behavior is purposeful, goal directed, and molar (not reducible to instincts or reflexes).
A Quaker and a pacifist, Tolman opposed WWI (which may have cost him his teaching job) but worked as a non-combatant in the Office of Strategic Services during WWII. A man of principle, Tolman was suspended from UC Berkeley when he refused to sign California’s loyalty oath. Eventually, his position was upheld by the courts, and he was reinstated.
Guthrie, Edwin (1886-1969).
For almost 45 years, Edwin R. Guthrie was a major force in learning theory. Like Watson, Guthrie focused on observable behavior. Unlike Watson, Guthrie held that learning was a one-shot process of association.
In contrast to classical conditioning , Guthrie’s associationism followed Aristotle’s concept of contiguity. Basically, Guthrie held that people tend to do what they did in a similar situation in the past. That is, the situation provides cues about how to behave. Unlike Thorndike, Guthrie did not hypothesize a law of effect. It was simply a matter of contiguity. When a stimulus situation reoccurs, it tends to be followed by the same movement which followed it before.
For more on Guthrie, check out Learning and Habits.
Lashley, Karl (1890-1958)
A student of Watson at Johns Hopkins, Karl Lashley more physiologist than psychologist. Best known for his doctrine of “mass action,” Lashley showed that the “brain fields” proposed by Gestalt psychology did not exist. Kohler had held that the brain functions by electrical fields; Lashley short-circuited the “field” by putting silver foil on the cortex and yet the behavior still occurred.
In another animal study, Lashley showed that when brain portions are damaged (i.e., surgically removed), rats don’t lose the ability to make light-dark discriminations. Although limited in scope, other parts of the brain take over functions when the brain is incapacitated. Similarly, when cats and monkeys were taught to escape, and portions of the cortex are removed (“extirpation”), the animals could not initially perform the task but were able to relearn it. Technically called “equipotentiality,” Lashley maintained that each part of the brain was equally important.
Sullivan, Harry Stack (1892-1949)
Born on a farm in upstate New York on February 2, 1892, Harry Stack Sullivan received his MD from the Chicago College of Medicine and Surgery, 1917. For most of his life, Sullivan served on hospital and medical school staffs, including St. Elizabeth’s in Washington, DC and the University of Maryland. At his death in 1949, he was the director of the Washington School of Psychiatry.
He published only one book during his life (Conceptions of Modern Psychiatry), but several volumes of his lectures have appeared posthumously.
According to Sullivan, people are surrounded by interpersonal fields, and must be understood within that context. Known for his interpersonal theory of human relationships, Sullivan used the concept of dynamism.
A highly complex dynamism which protects the individual from anxiety is called the self system. In a child this system is composed of good-me, bad-me and occasionally non-me dynamisms. The self system is Sullivan’s version of Freud’s superego.
Other complex dynamisms which are composed of feelings, attitudes and self images are called personifications. Personifications people hold in common are called stereotypes.
According to Sullivan, there are three modes of experience: protaxic (flowing sensations), parataxic (the development of superstitions and relationships), and syntaxic (the use of words and numbers). There also are two sources of tension: needs and anxiety. Needs are biological necessities, and anxiety is the result of real or imagined threats. The process of meeting one’s needs is described in Sullivan’s theory of personality development, which has seven stages, each one allowing the development of greater personal relationships.
Allport, Gordan (1897-1967).
The first modern personality trait theorist was Gordon Allport. In the 1930’s, Allport and his students searched through dictionaries to find words that described personality. They started with 17,953 adjectives but settled on 4504 of them.
Allport suggested that most of these traits were “common traits” (traits we all hold in common). Some might have a lot of a common trait but others might have only a smidge. But Allport also proposed that people can have individual traits unique to them.
His morphogenic approach combined individual uniqueness (idiographic traits) and group comparison traits (nomothetic traits). You can compare yourself to others on “agreeable,” “friendly,” and “caring.” Plus you can have your own special nobody-in-the-world-is-like-me traits. Allport bridged the “lots of traits” and the “only a few traits” debate by combining them.
Allport proposed there is a core to personality: a proprium. This central core is our sens of self. It is the “me” we know and feel ourselves to be. This proprium develops in stages. First, we begin early infancy with no sense of self. Second, we become able to tell the difference between our body and external things. This occurs in the second half of the first year.
The third stage of proprium development occurs in year 3. This is when we develop self-identify. We begin to take pride in our accomplishments. Of course, some negativism develops too. Allport’s use of the word “negativity” was sometimes reported as “reverse psychology,” and may have been the origins of that phrase.
The fourth stages of proprium development is the extension of self. In years 4-6, you develop an egocentric self. From your point of view, others are there for you. Santa, God, parents; everyone exists for your benefit. In this stage, self is extended to possessions; everything is “mine.” Self-image also emerges during this period. You begin to have hopes, aspirations, and expectations of others.
The fifth stage is the rational coper. During the period from 6 to 12, you learn to cope rationally. Like Freud’s ego and Piaget’s formal operations, you learn to think things through in your head.
The sixth and last stage is proprium striving. As a teen, you learn how to be an adult and yet remain yourself. You might rebel with the hope that your parents will stop you from doing stupid things. You want to be an adult and develop long-range plans. But you don’t want to leave your “self” behind or take total responsibility for your life.
Dollard, John (1900-1980) & Miller, Neal (1909-2002).
It was the 1960s, and everyone was interested in self discovery, cross-disciplinary education, and making-love-not-war. In this environment, old theories were explained in new terms, often by adding a social dimension. One such effort at Yale, found John Dollard (anthropologist) and Neal Miller (psychologist) joining forces to explain psychoanalytic principles in more modern terms. The result was Dollard-Miller’s psychoanalytic learning theory.
They combined Sigmund Freud and Clark Hull. Hull maintained that behavior is reinforced by drive reduction. Drives are strong stimuli that produce discomfort (hunger, thirst, etc.). A drive impels us to action when we encounter a cue. You’re already hungry (drive) when you hear your tummy growl (cue). The cue triggers a behavior designed to reduce the drive (get up and go to the kitchen). If you are successful in reducing the drive (you find a bag of cookies), the reduction in hunger reinforces that sequence, making it more likely to happen next time you’re hungry and hear your tummy growl.
For more on Dollard & Miller, check out Social Learning Theory.
Rogers, Carl (1902-1987)
More than anyone else, Carl Rogers (1902-1987) invented counseling. The vast numbers of counseling psychologists, marriage-family therapist and other mental health professionals are the product of his humanistic approach to therapy.
Like Freud, Rogers believed that actual experiences become symbolized. These symbolized experiences reflect all the characteristics of the actual experiences without all of the detail. It’s not so much what you experienced in the past as it is how you interpreted or feel about it.
For more on Rogers, check out Personality.
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Skinner, BF (1904-1990)
Born in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania, Skinner was an English major in college (Hamilton College) and then pursued psychology (at Harvard). In contrast to Hull, Skinner approached psychology inductively. He proposed an atheoretical methodology which preferred operational definitions to intervening variables.
Best known for his model of learning, Skinner emphasized the importance of what happens after a response. Not S-R, but S-R-C (stimulus-response-consequence), Skinner expanded Thorndike’s law of effect to an entire system of reinforcement.
For more on Guthrie, check out Learning.
Maslow, Abraham (1908-1970)
He helped shift psychology from behaviorism to humanism. He is the “father” of the Third Force of Psychology. The first force was Freud’s psychoanalytic approach. The second force or wave was Pavlov’s behaviorism. And the third major force in American psychology was humanism.
Maslow is best known for his hierarchy of needs. Building on the ideas of Henry Murray, Maslow theorized that needs are not all the same. Some needs must be met before others. Like Harlow’s monkeys, people their biological and safety needs met first. After the essentials are met, people can then pursue their psychological and spiritual needs.
For more on Maslow, check out Waves & Schools.
May, Rollo (1909-1994)
Born in Ada, Ohio, Rollo May introduced Heidegger’s existentialism to America. While he recovered from tuberculosis (just prior to receiving his Ph.D.), May read Kierkegaard and Freud, and ultimately wrote his dissertation of their views on anxiety.
Differentiating between normal and neurotic anxiety, May maintained that normal anxiety can help you grow. Emphasizing man’s capacity to “will” (actively choosing the best of possibilities), May maintained that we must choose to love. Love is composed of sex, eros(the need to unite with others), phila (brotherly love), and agape (love for all mankind).
Rotter, Julian (1916-2014)
Like other social learning theorists, Julian Rotter (1916-present) combines behaviorism plus cognition. What we know about the environment impacts what we do. And the best way to predict what people will do is to understand how they think.
Rotter maintains that the likelihood of a particular behavior is influenced by our cognition of rewards. Skinner was essentially right: we do respond to rewards but his system was to simple. We don’t turn off our brains when we’re rewarded. We use our brain power to make calculations about ourselves, the environment and rewards themselves.
For more on Rotter, check out Social Learning Theory.
Beck, Aaron (1921-2021).
He combined Rogers and Freud to create Cognitive Therapy. From Rogers, he takes the importance of developing a relationship with the client, and Roger’s emphasis on how you see the world (phenomenology). From Freud, Beck takes the importance of treating severe conditions, the value of a good medical education (Beck got his MD from Yale), and the great impact that internal processing has on external behavior.
For more on Beck, check out Cognitive Theories of Personality.
Bandura, Albert (1925 -1921).
Although trained in behaviorism, Bandura maintained that it would take too long for people to learn everything by associating stimuli or being rewarded. We are much more capable than that. According to Bandura, people primarily learn by watching others.
The process of observation learning is pretty straightforward. We watch what someone does. We make a mental note (representation) of how they did it. And we use our mental model as a guide of how we should behave. Bandura suggests four stages in the modeling process: attention (tracking the environment), retention (converting observations into a cognitive rule), reproduction (being able to apply the rule correctly) and motivation (having a reason to do the behavior).
For more on Bandura, check out Social Learning Theory.
Chomsky, Noam (1928-).
Although he is primarily a linguist, Noam Chomsky’s impact on psychology has been immense. In his scathing review of Skinner’s book Verbal Behavior, Chomsky calls psychology to task for its oversimplification of language and its acquisition.
Chomsky pointed out that because language occurs in complex situations, stimulus control is very unlikely. Similarly, unless behaviorism can specify how language is overtly reinforced, there is no need to assume that reinforcement is involved. Chomsky also attacked response strength, noting that yelling “beautiful” repeatedly at a painting would show high response strength but would not necessarily convey what the speaker thought of it.
According to Chomsky’s transformational-generative grammar, language is an innate human capacity. It is a unique, creative process. For Chomsky, the capacity for language is innate but the actual language one speaks is learned. He maintains that children acquire language too quickly for it to be learned..
Japanese Psychology
Want to jump ahead?
- Philosophical Roots of Psychology
- Waves & Schools of Psychology
- Old Philosophers, New Ideas
- Hobbes, Galileo & Descartes
- Experimental Physiology
- American Psychology
- Japanese Psychology
- German Psychology
- Russian Psychology
- Five Paths To Truth
- Birth of Psychology
- British Empiricism
- British Psychology
- French Psychology
- Wundt
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