KT

Here are my notes on this topic:

1. Principles

• Some things are easier to remember than others
• positive
• distinctive
• meaningful
• related to you
• Memories stored in different media
• Two phases
• availability
• accessibility
• Cluster
• Creative Memory
• memory is generative
• Misinformation
• memory is actively updated

2. Memory Systems

• sensory
• procedural
• prospective
• declarative
•   semantic
•   episodic
• implicit
•   muscle memory

3. Ebbinghaus

• Before memory
• Aristotle
• Descartes
• Ebbinghaus
• word-completion test
• complete this sentence
• color vision
• mental capacity
• Ebbinghaus’ illusion
• Already knew
•   difficulty increases with list length
•   frequent repetitions
•   serial position effect
• Discoveries
•   difficulty & amount learned not one to one
•   forgetting curve
•   within-list associations help
•   overlearn
•   total time hypothesis
•   distributed practice
•     1 hour day
• 10k

4. Encoding

• encoding
• structuring
• retrieving
• forgetting
• not good at remembering nonsense syllables
• some things easier to forget than others
• loss depends on context

5. False memories

• photographs
• vividness
• eye-witness testimony
• smashed or bumped
• store recipe, not meal
• source monitoring

Here are my notes on this topic:

1. Overview

• cognition
• mental action
• mental structures
• working memory
• judgment
• evaluation
• thinking
• reasoning
• computation
• meaning extraction
• decision making
• comprehension
• concepts
• images
• prototypes
• simplify our thinking
• Aristotle’s laws of association
•   similarity
•   opposites
•   contiguity
• mental set
• functional fixedness
• Maslow’s hammer
• fox & cat fable
• deciding takes
•   time
•   energy
•     depletion
•     decision fatigue
•       Iyengar & Lepper

2. Cognitive theories

• Gestalt
•   precognitive theory
•   integrated whole
•   shape or form
•   figure
•   ground
•   phi phenomenon
•     Max Wertheimer
•   golden ratios
• Information processing
•   first major cognitive theory
•   mind like computer
•   input
•   processing
•   storage
•   output
•   feedback
• Constructivism
•   global focus
•   meaningful learning
•   Piaget
•   Vygotsky
•   Bruner (scaffolding)
•   discovery learning
•   learning is an active process
•   spiral curriculum
• Contextual theories
•   extension of constructivism
•   emphasizes problem solving
•   student-focused
•   active learning
•   multiple contexts
•     field trips
•     internships
•     study abroad
•   assumes students have self-regulation

3. Tolman

• Intervening variables
• behavior is goal directed
• latent learning
• learning vs performance
• cognitive maps

4. Cognitive Maps

• mental representations
• summarize spatial information
• hind your way home
• your map is unique to you
• lowers cognitive load
• mind maps
• infographics
• structural overviews
• information in relational terms
• vector maps (bearing maps)
• sketch maps (landmarks)
• little evidence animals have cognitive maps
•   familiarity of landmarks
•   path integration (Darwin)
•     continuous integration of movement cues
•     maybe bearing maps

5. Cognitive Bias

• systematic errors
• bad heuristics
• rules to prevent info overload
• sort out what’s important
• fast
• bias
• general bias
• framing effect
• neglect of probability (ignore small risks)
• Monte Carlo (Gambler’s fallacy)
•   believe random events happen more often
•   use long-run rules on short-run events
• social bias
• fundamental attribution error
• halo effect
• women are wonderful
• effort bias
•   Ikea (what you build is worth more)
•   Google (don’t remember what can look up)
•   status quo
•   default setting
• self bias
•   attentional
•   Barnum
•   belief
•   confirmation
•   current moment
•   spotlight
• econ bias
•   rational choice theory
•   Daniel Kahneman
•   anchoring
•   loss aversion effect
•   post-purchase rationalization

Here are my notes on this topic:

1. Problem types

• initial state
• goal state
• problem space
• solution space
• sequence of operations
• well-defined problems
• well-structured problems
• Tower of Hanoi
• ill-defined problems
• open problems
• closed problems

2. Six steps

• where am I now
• where do I want to be
• how to get from here to there
• will this work
• try it out
• recursive
• problem
• next action
• implementation

3. Puzzles

• mazes
• creativity puzzles
• magic (limited information)
• jigsaw puzzles
• puzzle boxes
•   Japanese
•   Thorndike
•   Guthrie
• stereotyping

4. Bounded rationality

• Simon
• bounded rationality
• satisfysing
• Gigerenzer
• fast & frugal
• focusing effect

5. Strategies

• algorithms
• procedure
• formula
• Tower of Hanoi
• depth first
• breadth first
• Heuristics
• trial & error
• hill climbing
•   rule
•   take next best step
•   local high
•   local low
• means-end analysis
•   sub-goals
•   root-cause analysis

 

Drugs can be beneficial or harmful, depending on the dose, duration and drive. Clearly, the proper dose for one person can be harmful to another. And many drugs are designed to be short-term treatments.

Drive and motivation are often the most important elements in determining usage. But the drugs you take can change your brain chemistry in odd ways. What was rewarding before the drug becomes less rewarding after it. People can end up taking drugs without knowing why they started or why they continue.

 

Here are my notes on this topic:

1. Drug addiction

• symptoms
• tolerance
• delta-Fos B
• reward system
• cravings

2. Drug administration

• methods
•   intravenous (IV)
•   intraperitoneal (IP)
•   intramuscular
•   subcutaneous (SC)
•   oral administration
•   sublingual
•   intrarectal
•   inhalation
•   topical
•   intracerebroventricularl (ICV)
• factors
•   lipid solubility
•   depot binding
• inactivation-excretion
• dose response curve
• therapeutic index
• half-life
• affinity
• instant recovery
• tolerance
• sensitization
• protagonist
• antagonist
• efficacy

3. Stimulants

• uppers
• analeptics
• psychological dependence
• physical addiction
• euphoria
• heart failure
• anxiety
• facilitate norepinephrine
• counteract fatigue
• suppress appetite
• improve concentration
• Xanthine
•   caffeine
•     world’s most widely used drug
•     added to some medications (reduce drowsiness)
•   theobromine
•   theophylline
• Nicotine
•   crosses BBB
•   reaches brain in 10-20 secs
•   half-life of 2 hrs
•   dose
•     rate on inhalation
•     tobacco type
•     filter
•   small concentrations = increase receptor activity
•   large concentrations = toxic
•     respiratory paralysis
•     death
•   affinity for melamine
• Cocaine
•   “in” drug
• snob appeal
• Amphetamines
• dopamine transport backwards
• symptoms
•   grandiose ideas
•   rapid eye movement
•   jitters
•   crash
•   itchy skin
• “go pills”
• cheaper
• longer lasting effects
• suicidal thoughts
• withdrawal can last months

4. Depressants

• depress brain activity
• increases dopamine
• blocks glutamate receptors
• downers
• facilitate GABA
• Alcohol
• Type I (type A) alcoholism
•   men & women equally
•   less genetic
•   gradual onset
•   late onset (25+ yrs)
• Type II (type B) alcoholism
•   before 25
•   rapid onset
•   more severe
•   more genetics
•   more men (2-3x)
• Sons of alcoholic mothers
•   prenatal environment
•   trying to get back to “normal”
• Withdrawal can kill you
•  Opioids
• Withdrawal is painful; probably won’t die
• inhibits GAGA
• blocks norepinephrine
• morphine
• codeine
•   most widely used opiate
• heroin
•   semi-synthetic
•   oxycodone
•   buprenorphine
•   hydromorphone
•   intense rush is probably social
• methadone
•   to get off heroin
•   chronic pain treatment
• Barbiturates
• Benzodiazepines

5. Hallucinogenics

• Psychedelics
• LSD
•   serotonin receptors
•     at inappropriate times
•     for longer than normal
•   flashbacks (30%)
•   bad trip (anxiety attack)
• Marijuana
• Psilocybin
• Mescaline
• Dissociates
• Schedule I drug
•   limits research
•   intense sensory experiences
• dopamine release
• impairs ability to form new memories
• impairs ability to shift focus
• alters how info processes in hippocampus
• limits firing of all neurons
•   excitatory
•   inhibitory
• dream-like or unreal
• don’t recognize self in mirror
• distort reality
• PCP
•   angel dust
•   Schedule II drug
•   ionotropic glutamate receptors (NMDA)
•   inhibits nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
•   schizophrenia-like symptoms
• Nitrous Oxide
•   vapor huffing
•   deprives body of oxygen
•   euphoria
•   seizures
• Ketamine
• DXM
• Deliriants
• Deadly nightshade
•   atropine & scopolamine
•   Roman eye drops (dilates eyes)
•   2 berries can kill child
•   20 can kill adult
•   paralyzes nerve endings
• Jimson weed
• Mandrake
• Nutmeg

 

 

• I. Stimulants
  • Mostly psychological dependence
  • No physiological addiction
  • Also called analeptics
  • Invigorating or restorative
  • Effects
    • Temporary improvement in:
    • alertness, wakefulness, endurance, productivity & motion
    • Referred to “uppers”
  • Increased arousal, heart rate & blood pressure
    • Perceive less need of food-sleep
    • Improved mood, less anxiety
    • Euphoria
    • Heart failure
    • Anxiety
  • Most facilitate norepinephrine
    • Increase dopamine
    • Inhibit transporter (less reuptake)
  • Why Taken
    • Counteract fatigue
      • Make it through work
    • Reduce sleepiness
      • Treat narcolepsy
    • Decrease appetite
      • Weight loss
      • Treat obesity
    • Improve concentration
      • work or school; treat ADHD
    • Decrease depression
      • Treatment-resistant
      • Non-typical
• 10 Common Stimulants
• 1. Xanthine
  • Mild stimulants
  • Make less sleepy
  • Bronchodilators (was used to treat asthma)
  • Caffeine Coffee & tea
  • Theobromine Chocolate
  • Theophylline Tea & chocolate
  • Caffeine
    • World’s most widely used drug
    • Used by 85% of US daily
    • Coffee, tea, soda & tablets
    • In some medications
    • Enhance drug
    • Reduce drowsiness
• 2. Nicotine
  • Active chemical in tobacco
  • Available in:
    • cigarettes, cigars
    • chewing tobacco
    • nicotine patches
    • nicotine gum
    • electric cigarettes
  • Distribution
    • Inhaled
    • Distributed quickly thru blood
    • Crosses blood-brain barrier
    • Reaches brain 10-20 secs
    • Half-life is 2 hours
  • Effects
    • Most is burned when smoked
    • Enough inhaled to cause pharmacological effects
    • Amount absorbed depends on
    • Rate of inhalation: none, fast, slow
    • Type of tobacco
    • Filter
  • Nicotonic Ach receptors
    • Ganglion nicotinic receptors
    • Adrenal medulla
    • Brain
    • Nicotinic receptor
  • In small concentrations
    • Increases activity of receptors
    • Impacts other neurotransmitters thru in-direct mechanisms
    • Volume control
  • At toxic levels
    • Muscle contractions & respiratory paralysis
  • Impacts dopamine
    • Dopamine connection is addictive
    • Relaxation
    • Euphoria
  • Nicotine activates SNS (sympathetic nervous system)
    • Adrenal medulla
    • Stimulates release of epinephrine
  • Affinity for melanin
    • More dependence
    • Harder to stop smoking in darker-pigmented individuals
  • Like cocaine
    • Repeated use reduces dopamine response to reinforcement
    • Some find it helpful to take antidepressants when quitting
• 3. Amphetamines
  • Schedule II drug
  • High likelihood for dependence
  • Used under severe restrictions
  • Some accepted medical use
    • High potential for abuse
  • Increase NE & dopamine
    • Inhibits reuptake
    • Direct release of nonepinephrine and dopamine from vesicles
    • Pushes dopamine into synapse
    • Uses dopamine transporter
    • Goes thru cell membrane
  • Experience
    • Elevated mood & euphoria
    • Alertness & concentration
    • Increased libido
    • Higher self-esteem & confidence
    • More social interaction
    • More energy
    • More awake & focused
    • Increased weight loss
    • Decreased appetite
  • Also
    • Rebound depression-anxiety
    • Dilated pupils & blood shot eyes
    • Hyperactive & restless
    • Flushing & headaches (vasoconstriction)
    • Tachycardia & tremors
    • Dry mouth & itchy skin
    • Blurred vision, dizziness
    • Insomnia
    • Fever
  • Symptoms
    • Talking fast & nervousness
    • Rapid eye movements
      • “the jitters,” & shifting
    • “Munchies”
    • Obsessive behaviors
    • Grandiose ideas
    • Paranoia
    • Psychosis
    • Might not sleep for several days
    • “Crash“
      • lying down on floor, go to sleep
      • in middle of activity around them
      • in middle of a sentence
    • Eventually look thin & gaunt; starved
    • Cardiac arrest and death
  • Often Abused
    • Availability
    • Fast-acting effects
  • Amphetamines kill better than cocaine
    • Speed is cheaper & longer lasting
    • Cocaine is an “in” drug
    • like champagne; snob appeal
  • Extremely dangerous when combined with alcohol
    • Withdrawal symptoms
    • Depression
    • Appetite
    • Fatigue
    • Deep REM sleep
    • Suicidal thoughts
    • Vivid dreams
    • Agitation
    • Can last for day or months
  • Used in WWII
    • Pilots got “go pills“
• II. Depressants
  • Depress function or activity in the brain
    • Downer
    • Pain relief
    • Sedatives
    • Muscle relaxation
  • Use different pharmacological mechanism
    • Most facilitate GABA or opioid receptors
    • Inhibit glutamate
  • Common depressants
    • Alcohol
    • Opioids
    • Barbituates
    • Benzodiazepines
• 1. Alcohol
  • Effects
    • Inhibits sodium flow across cell membrane
    • More sodium in the cells expands membrane
    • Decreases serotonin activity
    • Increases dopamine activity
    • Blocks glutamate receptors
    • Facilitates GABA
• Alcoholism
  • Type A (Type I)
    • Fewer genetic relatives with alcoholism
    • Men and women about equally
    • Later onset (usually after 25)
    • Generally less severe
    • Gradual onset
  • Type B (Type II)
    • Earlier onset (before 25)
    • More rapid onset, more severe
    • More genetic relatives with alcoholism
    • Far more men than women
  • Genetic predisposition
    • 9% of population
    • Unpredictable variables
    • Quantity, frequency & regularity
  • Risk factors
    • Social environment
    • Emotional health
    • Sensation seeking
    • Genetics
      • Sons of alcoholic mothers
        • After moderate drinking
        • Feel less drunk, have less body sway
        • Show less change in EEG
        • Feel less tense
        • Smaller than normal amygdala
        • Connects emotions to senses
        • Get brain chemistry back to “normal”
    • Stress
    • Gender
      • Men 2-3 times more likely
      • Women more impacted by long-term use
    • Age = Under 16
    • Hangovers
      • 50% of Chinese-Japanese have gene that slows metabolism of acetaldehyde
      • Increases effects of hangover
      • Makes hangover immediate
      • Less alcoholics
  • High rate of suicide in alcoholics & drug abusers
    • Distortion of brain chemistry
    • Social isolation
    • Intoxicated (not thinking clearly)
    • 1 in 4 teen suicides is alcohol abuse related
  • More crimes
    • Abuse, rape, burglaries, assaults
  • Chronic use
    • Symptoms similar to mental illness when drunk
    • When not
      • Severe anxiety
      • Depression
• 2. Opioids
  • Types
    • Natural
      • Morphine
      • Codeine
    • Semi-synthetic opiates
      • Heroin
    • Synthetic opiates
      • Methadone
  • Highly additive
    • Increases release of endorphins
    • Decreases pain
    • Inhibits GABA
    • Causes increase in dopamine
    • Blocks release of norepinephrine
  • Psychological dependence
  • Physical addiction
    • Withdrawal not usually fatal
    • Tolerance
  • Used To Treat
    • Post-operative pain
    • Cancer pain
    • Rheumatoid arthritis
  • Morphine
    • Treats acute and chronic pain
    • Heart pain
    • Labor pain
    • Lasts 3-4 hrs
    • Abusers don’t have a preference for morphine or heroin
  • Codeine
    • Most widely used opiate
    • 3-methylmorphine
      • natural isomer of methylated morphine
    • Used To Treat
      • Mild-moderate pain
      • Relieve cough
      • Diarrhea & irritable bowel syndrome
    • Abused
      • Phenergam with codeine
      • Anti-nausea medication
  • Semi-synthetic opiates
    • Oxycodone
    • Buprenorphine
    • Hydromorphone
    • Heroin
      • Diacetylmorphine or morphine diacetate
      • Synthesized from morphine
      • Schedule I drug
      • Effects
        • “transcendent relaxation”
      • Euphoria
      • Tolerance quickly develops
      • Users perceive it has different effects from morphine
        • Intense rush
        • Probably not physical; social
  • Synthetic opiates
    • Meperidine/pethidine
    • Fentanyl
    • Methadone
    • Compared to morphine or heroin
      • Chemically different
      • Acts on same receptors
    • Use To Treat
      • Chronic pain
      • Maintenance drug for heroin reduction
• III. Hallucinogenics
  • Subjective perceptual changes
  • Disrupt
    • Thinking, emotion, consciousness
    • Induce experiences
    • Not just enhance
• 1. Psychedelics
  • LSD
    • Stimulates serotonin receptors
    • at inappropriate times
    • for longer than normal duration
  • Marijuana
    • Leaves contain THC
      • intensify sensory experience
    • Impacts release of dopamine
    • Impairs ability to form new memories
    • Impairs ability to shift focus
    • Disrupts coordination and balance
    • Binds to receptors in cerebellum and basal ganglia
    • Impairs ability to learn new skills
      • Dance, sports or driving
    • Alters how info processed in hippocampus
    • Doesn’t affect breathing and heart rate as many substances
      • Only few receptors in medulla & brain stem
    • Limits firing of all neurons
      • Both excitatory and inhibitory
    • Hypothalamus doesn’t increase appetite when starving
    • Disrupts sense of time
    • Stays in system for 4 weeks
• 2. Dissociatives
  • Feel detached from the environment
  • Feel dream-like or unreal
    • “out of body”
  • Don’t recognize self in mirror
    • Ketamine
    • DXM
    • PCP
    • angel dust
    • Schedule II drug
  • Impacts ionotropic glutamate receptors
    • NMDA receptors
      • also inhibits nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
  • Brain damage
    • Schizophrenia-like symptoms
    • “embalming fluid” = cigarette dipped in PCP
  • Effects
    • Varies by dose
    • Loss of ego boundaries
    • Paranoia
    • Hallucinations
    • Suicidal impulses
  • Nitrous Oxide
    • Colorless, sweet, non-flammable gas
    • Laughing gas or sweet air
    • Oxide of nitrogen
      • Oxidizer in rocketry
      • Aerosol spray propellant
    • Street names: whip-its, poppers or snappers
    • Vapor is “huffed“
    • Deprives body of oxygen
      • Euphoric effect
      • Seizures
• 3. Deliriants
  • Examples
    • Deadly nightshade
    • Jimson weed
    • Mandrake
    • Nutmeg
  • Effects
    • Stupor, confusion, confabulation
    • Disrobing and plucking
    • Conversation with imagined people
    • Don’t recognize self in mirror

 

Here are my notes on this topic:

1. Allport

• Trait Theory
• 1^st modern personality trait theorist
• dictionaries for words that described personality
• 17,953 adjectives
• settled on 4504 of them.
• Common Traits
  • Most were “common traits”
  • traits we all hold in common
  • Some have a lot of one
  • Some have only a smidge
• Personal dispositions
  • Unique Traits
  • People can have individual traits unique to them
  • Bridged the “lots of traits” and the “only a few traits” debate by combining them.
  • central core is our sense of self
  • Three Types
    • Cardinal
    • Central: 5-10 traits
    • Secondary
  • Proprium
    • Core to personality: a proprium.
    • Six stages

2. Group Dynamics

• Norms
  • ​Rules about how group members should act
• ​Specific Roles
• ​​Social Loafing
  • When individuals do not put in as much effort when acting as part of a group as they do when acting alone
• Group Polarization
  • The tendency of a group to make more extreme decisions than the group members would make individually
• Groupthink
  • ​The tendency for some groups to make bad decisions
  • Group members suppress their reservations about the ideas the group supports

3. Three Studies

Zimbardo

• Stanford Prison Experiment
• ​Philip Zimbardo (the devil)
• Simulated prison
• Students took to assigned roles too well
• Ended early​
• Deindividuation
• Groups members feel anonymous and aroused
• Loss of self restraint
• People do things they never would have done on their own

Milgram

• Conformity
• ​The tendency to go along with the views or actions of others
• ​​Solomon Asch 1951 Experiment
  • ​brought participants into a room of confederates
  • asked them to make simple perceptual judgments
  • showed 3 vertical lines and asked which was the same length as a target line
  • ​had to answer out loud
  • confederates gave a unanimous, obviously wrong answer
  • 70% of participants conformed on at least 1 trial
• Obedience Studies
  • ​Focus on the willingness of participants to do what another asks
• The Milgram Experiment 1974
  • ​told participants it was a study about teaching and learning
  • participants were told to administer “electric shocks”
  • over 60% delivered all possible shocks
• Compliance Strategies
  • ​​​Strategies to get others to comply with your wishes
  • Foot-in-the-door Phenomenon
  • If you can get people to agree to a small request, they will become more likely to agree to a larger follow-up request
  • Door-in-the-face Strategy
  • After people refuse a large request, they will look more favorably upon a smaller follow-up request
  • Norms of Reciprocity
  • The tendency to think that when someone does something nice for you, you should do something nice in return

Festinger’s Cognitive Dissonance Theory

• People are motivated to have consistent attitudes and behaviors
  • when they don’t, they experience dissonance
  • unpleasant mental tension
• Experiment- Festinger and Carlsmith
  • participants performed a boring task
  • asked to tell next subject that they enjoyed it
  • subjects paid $1 to lie had more positive attitudes toward the experiment than those paid $20
  • they lacked sufficient external motivation to lie
  • reduced dissonance by changing attitudes

4. Four More Studies

Robbers Cave Study

• ​Sherif 1966
• ​​divided campers into 2 groups
• ​had them compete in a series of activities to create animosity
• ​staged camp emergencies as superordinate goals
• ​improved relations between the groups

Pygmalion

• Self-fulfilling Prophecy
• The expectations we have about others can influence their behavior
• “Pygmalion in the Classroom” experiment
• Rosenthal and Jacobson 1968
  • administered an IQ test to elementary school students
  • said it would measure who was on the verge of academic growth
  • randomly picked a group of students
  • claimed they were ripe for intellectual progress
  • measured IQs again at the end of the year
  • the scores of the randomly picked students improved more than those of their classmates

Diffusion of Responsibility

• Bystander Intervention
• The conditions under which people are more or less likely to help someone in trouble
• The larger the group of people who witness a problem, the less responsible any one individual feels to help

Attraction

• Fundamental Principle
• We like others who:
  • are similar to us
  • similarity: with whom we come into frequent contact
  • proximity: who return our positive feelings
  • reciprocal liking
• Self-Disclosure
• Sharing a piece of personal information with another person
• The Influence of Others on an Individual’s Behavior

5. Sexual Norms

• Kink vs Vanilla
  • sexual fetishism
  • non-conventional sexual practices
  • BDSM, leather, LGBTQ (the Q)
    • BDSM. 2-62%
  • Australians in last 12 months
    • 1.3% woman
    • 2.2% men
• B&D
  • 60% fantasize
  • 10% participate
• Christian Joyal (2015)
  • surveyed 1,500 women and men
• Sexual fantasies
  • Being dominated
  • 64.6% women
  • 53.3% men
• Sick
  • Freud                   yes
  • Pamela Connolly
    • compared to published norms on 10 psychological disorders.
    • lower depression, anxiety, PTSD
    • sadism, masochism, borderline
    • equal levels of OCD
    • higher narcissism
• Spanked & tied up makes you high
  • images of
  • bondage, disciple, sadomasochism, dominance, submission
  • endorphin rush (runner’s high)
  • pain, acting out fantasy & sex
• Power exchange
  • Pain of peppers
  • Classical conditioning
  • click of boot with licking boot
  • Operant (humiliation punishment)
  • Scenes & play together
• Group activities
  • Safe, Sane & Consensual
    • Safe word
    • Red-yellow-green
• Bondage
• Dominance
  • Can be abusive
  • Voluntary
  • Time limit
• Submission
  • Traditional woman’s role
  • Collar ceremony
• Not orientation specific
• S&M
• Leather
• Pet Play
  • Humiliation
  • Fun
  • Abusive

Here are my notes on this topic:

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