1. Applied Classical Conditioning

Ever feel like running away? The problem with running away from something causes to run toward something different, often without considering what options are available to use. In escape, a bad thing happens before we are activated into action. In avoidance, a bad thing happens and we try really hard to to let it happen again.In aversion, the thought of something bad is enough for us to dislike it.

Here are 5 things we will discuss:

• Applied Classical Conditioning
• Aversion
• Avoidance
• Escape
• PTSD

Watson

• • Little Albert
  • Walter Thompson Advertising
  • Ponds cold cream
  • Maxwell house “coffee break”
  • Testimonials
  • Pebeco toothpaste
  • Seduction, smoking is okay if use Pebeco
  • Advertising

Current examples

2. Aversion

Avoidance : stopping from doing (I control)

Aversion: Strong dislike or disinclination (external control)

Taste Aversion

• • Fairly common
  • Sushi
  • Chemotherapy: associate drug nausea with food
  • Toxic, poisonous or spoiled food
  • Operant or classical conditioning?
  • Not require cognitive awareness
  • One trial
  • Long time between $ and effect
  • Hot dog at lunch, sick at night

Garcia, John

1. 1. Garcia effect
   2. Coincidental, not food caused
   3. Rats given sweetened water before radiation
   4. 3 groups
   5. No radiation            chose sweet.   80%
   6. Mild radiation          mix                40%
   7. Strong radiation       tap                  10%
   8. Choice of sweetened or tap water
   9. Moral: stimulus used in classical conditioning matters
   10. An internal stimulus produced an internal response while an external stimulus produced an external response; but an external stimulus would not produce an internal response and vice versa

Seligman

• • Sauce-bearmaise syndrome

Risk

• • Prefer outcomes with low uncertainty
  • Even if can get more reward
  • More predictable but less profitable

Rotter

• • Behavior = likelihood and size of reward

Kahneman & Tversky

• • Tend to avoid risk if choice is between gains
  • Seek risks when choice is between losses
  • For example, most people prefer a certain gain of 3,000 to an 80% chance of a gain of 4,000. When posed the same problem, but for losses, most people prefer an 80% chance of a loss of 4,000 to a certain loss of 3,000.
  • Brain
  • Risk aversion in right inferior frontal gyrus
  • Deal or No Deal
  • People are more risk averse in limelight
  • Investors
  • Investors trade more frequently and more speculatively with online trading (instead of phone)

Loss Aversion

• • Prefer avoiding losses
  • Loss preceeds loss aversion
  • Previously experienced (loss)
    • Start another relationship after breakup
  • Expected to happen (risk)
  • Loss aversion is twice as strong as risk
    • Much worse to lose $100 than satisfaction of winning $100
  • Expectations
    • belief about an outcome; can create loss aversion even if nothing bad has happened
  • Framing
    • $5 discount or as a $5 surcharge

3. Avoidance

• Bad experience
• Don’t go back
• Put on sun glasses before going out
• Avoidance parados: no stimulus, so what maintains behavior
• Discriminated avoidance experiment
  • Neutral stimulus (light) is followed by aversive (shock)
  • Press lever to prevent aversive stimulus: avoidance
• Free-operant avoidance learning
  • No neutral stimulus
  • Periodically gets shock unless press lever periodically

4. Escape

• Bad experience
• Get out
• Behavior terminates aversive stimulus
• Cover eyes, cover ears, leave location
• Negative reinforcement
  • Neutral stimulus (light) is followed by aversive (shock)
  • Press lever to terminate aversive stimulus: escape

5. PTSD

• History
  • Shell shock
  • Combat neurosis
  • Mental disorder?
• Traumatic event occurs
  • Most people don’t have symptoms
  • War: 75% no symptoms
• Any person
• Any age
• Symptoms after event
• Symptoms within first 3 months
  • Flashback: relive episode
  • Disorder: cause disruption
• Longer than month
• Heredity?
  • Twins in Vietnam war, more likely
  • Smaller hippocampus more likely
  • Heightened startle response
• Brain
  • High levels of cortisol, can’t reset
  • Low levels of serotonin (regulate emotion)
  • Low levels of dopamine (what’s important)
  • Less active ventromedial areas (regulation of emotion)
  • Smaller hippocampus (emotional memories not processed)
  • May self-medicate with drugs and alcohol
• • 

 

 

I have had a guitar for many years. Not the same one but the same problem: I’m not a very skilled guitar player. In addition to short fingers, I don’t practice and never did. Consequently, not very skilled.

There are a few genetic advantages we can be born with but most skills are acquired by consistent, persistent practice. There is no general skill for balance or coordination. But there is a lot of variation in the amount of time people devote to practicing a specific skill.

Terms

• AAA BBB CCC
• ABC ABC ABC
• ACB ABC BAC
• artificial ventilation
• autonomous stage
• block practice
• certainty
• classification dimensions
• closed environments
• complex skills
• continuous movements
• declarative stage
• delayed retrieval
• differentiation
• discrete movements
• discrete skills
• discriminative-contrast hypothesis
• distributed practice
• economy of motion
• environmental factors
• environments
• experiential learning
• experts
• explicit knowledge
• external-paced
• fine motor skills
• flow
• fluency
• fluid movements
• general ability
• grace
• gross motor skills
• hecklers
• hobbies
• implicit knowledge
• improvisations
• Increased effectiveness
• interleaved practice
• Johns Hopkins
• Kahneman, Daniel
• maximum certainty
• maximum fluency
• minimum energy
• minimum time
• mixed skills
• motor stage
• movements
• muscles
• open environments
• pacing
• performance characteristics
• practice
• practice exercises
• practiced behavior
• productive failure
• proficiency
• randomized order
• retrieval-practice hypothesis
• self-pacing skills
• serial skills
• series
• simple skills
• simplicity
• small gains
• speeded tests
• stages of learning skills
• start with a guide
• talk your way through it
• target behaviors
• target contexts
• target skills
• targets
• task specific
• Thinking Fast and Slow
• timed events
• tips
• track your progress
• uniqueness
• variation
• when matters
• working memory

Quiz

The first stage of skill development is:

• a. interleaved
• b. declarative
• c. expressive
• d. implicit

 

2. Component actions needed to perform target skills are:

• a. maximally fluent
• b. target behaviors
• c. predictable
• d. discrete

3. Playing jazz is an:

• a. elaborated environment
• b. inverted environment
• c. aligned environment
• d. open environment

4. A signer who is neither flat or sharp is demonstrating:

• a. maximum certainly
• b. maximum fluency
• c. minimum energy
• d. minimum time

5. Skills are:

• a. not a general ability
• b. open or closed
• c. practiced
• d. all of the above

1. The first stage of skill development is:

• a. interleaved
• b. declarative
• c. expressive
• d. implicit

2. Component actions needed to perform target skills are:

• a. maximally fluent
• b. target behaviors
• c. predictable
• d. discrete

3. Playing jazz is an:

• a. elaborated environment
• b. inverted environment
• c. aligned environment
• d. open environment

4. A signer who is neither flat or sharp is demonstrating:

• a. maximum certainly
• b. maximum fluency
• c. minimum energy
• d. minimum time

5. Skills are:

• a. not a general ability
• b. open or closed
• c. practiced
• d. all of the above

 

 

 

 

Here are 5 things we’ll cover:

• What are skills
• Skill acquisition stages
• Practice
• Fast & Slow
• Tips

are my notes on this topic:

1. What are skills

• Not a general ability
• Test-taking skill
• Performance characteristics
  • maximum certainty
  • maximum fluency
  • minimum energy
  • minimum time
• Classification Dimensions (six)
  • environment
  • muscles
  • target
  • movement
  • simplicity
  • pacing
• Behavior classifications
• Target behaviors & contexts
• Discrete, Continuous, Serial, & Mixed

2. Skill acquisition stages

• declarative
• motor
• autonomous

3. Practice

• Rehearsal
  • substantial (orchestra)
  • some rehearsal (wedding)
  • none (Noh therater)
  • mental rehearsal
  • expanded rehearsal strategy
• Blocked Practice (normal)
  • Review basics
  • Complete practice exercises
  • Acceptable level of proficiency, move on
  • AAA
  • BBB
  • CCC
• Interleaved Practice
  • Also called: varied practice or mixed practice
  • Work on multiple skills in parallel
  • Series: ABC ABC ABC
  • Randomized: ACB ABC BAC
  • NOTE: can’t work on same type of problem back to back
• Two groups
• Blockers (block practice)
  • Given one tutorial
  • 4 related practice problems
  • Move on from spheres to cones, etc.
• Mixers (interleaved practice)
  • given all four tutorials
  • completed 16 practice problems
  • mixed
  • 1 of each in every cluster of 4
• Both groups
  • Two practice sessions
  • Test one week later
• Results
  • Blockers did better on practice sessions
  • ~29% better
  • Mixers did better on tests
  • 43% better
• Theories
  • Retrieval-practice hypothesis
    • First problem retrieves needed info
    • Remainder of problems; only use working memory
    • Practicing retrieval makes a path from LTM to working memory
  • Discriminative-Contrast Hypothesis
    • Practice one skill over and over; doesn’t differentiate between them
• Johns Hopkins
  • manipulate computer cursor
  • device you squeeze
• Three groups
  • Group 1
    • practice exercise
    • 3x over course of two days
  • Group 2
    • two slightly different practice routines
  • Group 3
    • Control
    • 1 practice session
• Results
  • Variety works best
  • Slightly modified versions
  • Learn more
  • Learn faster (2x faster)
• Notes
  • Not radically alter your practice
  • too different, no gain
  • Not switching from batting to fielding
  • hitting a different sort of pitch
  • Hobbies can help your work
• Massed Practice
• Distributed Practice
• Deliberate Practice

4.  Fast & Slow

• Daniel Kahneman
• Thinking Fast and Slow, says that, “…acquisition of skills requires
  • regular environment
  • adequate opportunity to practice
  • rapid and unequivocal feedback
• Start with a guide
  • YouTube
  • Tutorials, guides
  • Books about fishing
• Explore on your own

5. Tips

• Post-Op Analysis
  • incident: assess chain of events that took place
  • football game
  • after-action review: debriefing of what happened, why it happened and how it can be done better (US Army)
• Study the material
  • know how to solve problem or perform the skill
• Avoid flow
  • When you feel the sensation, switch
• Review
  • Mix in old material
  • Mix up your practice material
• Track your progress
  • Particularly for long-term strategies
• Interleaving or distributed practice
  • Baddeley’s typing
  • might just be too hard to implement
• Small gains
• Fail
  • Push a button and see what happens
  • Experiment: “productive failure”
  • Learning by doing
  • Experiential learning
• Distributed Practice
  • Spread Out Learning Over Time
  • 1 hr per day
• Quiz yourself before test
  • Not underling or rereading
• When matters
  • when you study or practice is important
  • internal clock
  • learn best when we do so before sleep
  • night or naps
• Be unique: whatever works for you

 

• • • • witching from batting to fielding
        • hitting a different sort of pitch
      • Hobbies can help your work
• Tips
  • Study the material
    • know how to solve problem or perform the skill
  • Avoid flow
    • When you feel the sensation, switch
  • Review
    • Mix in old material
    • Mix up your practice material
  • Track your progress
    • Particularly for long-term strategies
    • Interleaving or distributed practice
    • Baddeley’s typing
    • might just be too hard to implement
  • Small gains
  • Daniel Kahneman
    • Thinking Fast and Slow, says that, “…acquisition of skills requires
      • regular environment
      • adequate opportunity to practice
      • rapid and unequivocal feedback
  • Start with a guide
    • YouTube
    • Tutorials, guides
    • Books about fishing
  • Explore on your own
    • Fail
    • Push a button and see what happens
    • Experiment: “productive failure”
    • Learning by doing
    • Experiential learning
  • Distributed Practice
    • Spread Out Learning Over Time
    • 1 hr per day
  • Quiz yourself before test
    • Delayed retrieval
    • Not underling or rereading
  • When matters
    • When you study or practice is important
    • internal clock
    • learn best when we do so before sleep
    • night or naps
  • Be unique
    • Whatever works for you

 

 

1. Limited Amount of Will

• Volition
• Self-control
• Marshmallow Study

2. Depletion & Decision Fatigue

• Iyengar & Lepper

  • more choices you have, the less you want to decide anything
  • facing six options is better than facing 26
  • satisfaction decreases when you have too many options
  • calculate odds of happiness based on the number of options
  • more options, the less likely you are to have selected the correct one
  • how many is the right number? No one really knows

• Ways we handle decision making when we are fatigued

• • First, status quo; expel no effort.
  • Second, default setting; expel limited effort.
  • Third, event substitution; fight about what to have for lunch
  • Fourth, reasoning by simplification
    • Kahneman & Frederick call this attribute substitution
    • make analogies
    • some analogies are better than others but all serve the purpose of simplification
  • Fifth, heuristics
    • algorithm = will always work (even if it is not the fastest method)
    • heuristic is a mental shortcut. It is fast and usually works
    • rule of thumb
    • readily accessible

3. Effects of Decision Fatigue

• Reduced ability to make trade-offs
• decision avoidance
• impulse purchasing
• impaired self regulation
• Analysis paralysis (over analyzing)

4. Heuristics & Judgment

• Kahneman & Tversky
• Availability
• Representativeness
• Cognitive laziness
• Problem substitution

5. Cognitive Bias

• refers to the imperfection of our information processing heuristics
• heuristics are rules used to prevent information overload
• help us sort out what is important
• fast but have systematic errors (bias)
• attentional bias – pay attention to emotional $or recurring thoughts. When we frequently think about the car we drive, we pay more attention to the cars other people drive.
• availability heuristic = overestimate our future performance when we focus on our past successes; remember wins and ignore losses
• Availability heuristic. If you can remember it, it is important or true.
• Bandwagon effect. Base your behavior on what others are doing.
• Barnum effect (Forer effect). Tendency to rate vague descriptions of personality as highly accurate if you believe they were generated specifically for you. A type of subjective validation.
• belief bias. Strength of belief is interpreted as truth
• confirmation bias = look for confirming evidence of our current beliefs and ignore contradictory evidence
• confirmation bias. Search for supporting data to reduce inconsistency.
• current moment bias. Prefer current pleasure, leave pain for the future.
• fundamental attribution error (correspondence bias). Over-emphasize personality-based explanations. Under-emphasize situational influences
• gambler’s fallacy (Monte Carlo fallacy). A type of mental averaging or limited time frame. Belief that random events currently more frequent than normal will in the short term future be less frequent than normal.
• Google effect. Less likely to remember information you believe is accessible online.
• halo effect. A form of confirmation bias combined with stimulus generalization. Throndike’s observation that positive feeling in one area tend to be transferred to other areas. If you like a person, they are good and trustworthy. If you dislike one aspect, you will dislike everything.
• hindsight bias. I knew it all the time. Post hoc ego proctor hoc.
• IKEA effect. Dan Ariely’s observation that people tend to place greater value on things they make or assemble. A type of effort justification.
• Lake Wobegone effect. Tendency to overestimate achievements (based onGarrison Keillor fictional town where all the children above average). People estimate their intelligence, driving ability, popularity and problem solving skills as being above average.
• loss aversion. Strong preference to avoid loss; twice as strong as desire for gain (Tversky & Kahneman).
• neglect of probability. Tendency to disregard probability, particularly in uncertain situations. Small risks are completely neglected or greatly overrated.
• normalcy bias. Tend to under prepare for disasters because we underestimate its probability and its effect.
• post-purchase rationalization. Find reasons for having made a decision.
• spotlight effect. The tendency to overestimate how much others notice you. Similar to the imaginary audience experienced by adolescents.
• status-quo bias. Tend to be reluctant to change. Stay with routines.

Terms

• active learning
• ambiguous information
• Ariely
• Aristotle
• attention
• attentional bias
• availability heuristic
• Bandwagon effect
• Barnum effect
• bearing map (vector map)
• behaviorism
• belief bias
• biotic experiments
• boundary cells
• Bruner, Jerome
• cognition
• cognitive behaviorism
• cognitive bias
• cognitive load
• cognitive map
• cognitive theories
• comprehension
• computation
• concepts
• conceptual structures
• confirmation bias
• constructivism
• contextual learning theory
• correspondence bias
• cross-maze
• current moment bias
• Darwin
• decision making
• discovery learning
• effort justification
• evaluation
• Forer effect
• functional fixedness
• fundamental attribution error
• Gambler’s fallacy
• generalizations
• Gestalt
• goal directed behavior
• Google effect
• grid cells
• halo effect
• heuristics
• hindsight bias
• hippocampus
• IKEA effect
• imaginary audience
• infographics
• information processing
• internships
• intervening variable
• judgment
• Koffka
• Kohler
• Lake Wobegone effect
• landmark familiarity
• latent learning
• learning
• learning as an active process
• loss aversion
• Maslow’s hammer
• meaning extraction
• mental images
• mental representation
• mental set
• mental structures
• mind as computer
• mind maps
• Monte Carlo fallacy
• neglect of probability
• normalcy bias
• object identification
• object location
• path integration
• peer teaching
• perception
• performance
• phi phenomenon
• Piaget
• place cells
• post-purchase rationalization
• principle of psychophysical isomorphism
• principle of totality
• problem solving
• prototypes
• reasoning
• scaffolding
• self-monitoring
• self-organizing tendencies
• self-regulation
• similarity
• sketch map (landmark map)
• spatial features
• spatial information
• spatial reasoning
• spiral curriculum
• spotlight effect
• status-quo bias
• stereotypes
• stimulus discrimination
• stimulus generalization
• structural overviews
• student-focused learning
• Stumpf
• subjective validation
• thinking
• Throndike
• Titchener
• Tolman
• Tversky & Kahneman
• vividness
• Vygotsky
• Wertheimer, Max
• working memory
• Wundt

Quiz

 

 

We anticipate the unknown. We use our past experience to predict what will happen in the future. A closed door suggests surprises could be inside. A pregnant woman bring up associations with other people and situations. Our brains don’t like surprise, so we spin stories about possible things what will or might happen.

Here are 5 things we will cover:

• Perceptual Expectations
• Myths of Life
• Framing & Priming
• Loss Aversion
• Rotter

1. Perceptual Expectation

• illusions
• Gestalt

2. Myths of Life

• Life should be fair

 

Terms

• algorithm
• anchoring
• attribute substitution
• behavior potential
• bounded rationality
• choice-war = Tangen’s term for decision fatigue
• cognitive science
• contingency
• decision fatigue
• decision making
• decision satisfaction
• default setting heuristic
• depletion
• draw the problem
• event substitution heuristic
• expectation (E)
• expectations
• external locus of control
• fable
• fast and frugal
• focusing effect
• Fox & Cat
• framing effect
• George Pólya: “How To Solve It.”
• Gigerenzer, Gerd
• heuristics
• internal locus of control
• inventor’s paradox
• Iyengar & Lepper (too many choices)
• Kahneman & Frederick
• learned helplessness
• locus of control
• loss aversion
• mental shortcut
• moral of the story
• multiple alternatives
• options
• perspective shifting = abstract to concrete or concrete to abstract
• placebo effect
• predictions
• problem simplification
• processing time
• rational choice theory
• reasoning by simplification
• reinforcement value (RV)
• retrograde reasoning = working a problem backwards
• Rotter, Julian
• rule accessibility
• rule of thumb
• rule stability
• satisficing
• Simon, Herbert
• six options
• status quo heuristic
• trial and error heuristic
• Tversky & Kahneman

Qu8z

1. The Fox got caught because processing options:

• a. relieves anxiety
• b. relaxes you
• c. takes time
• d. is fun

2. Which will always work, even if it is not the fastest method:

• a. process analysis
• b. goal setting
• c. algorithm
• d. heuristic

3. Learned helplessness is similar to Rotter’s ______ locus of control.

• a. segmental
• b. relational
• c. external
• d. internal

4. Iyengar & Lepper note that the more options you have:

• a. the higher your satisfaction
• b. the lower your satisfaction
• c. the kinder you become
• d. the easier it gets

5. Analogies serve the purpose of:

• a. simplification
• b. amplification
• c. lateralization
• d. regeneration

 

1. The Fox got caught because processing options:

• a. relieves anxiety
• b. relaxes you
• c. takes time
• d. is fun

2. Which will always work, even if it is not the fastest method:

• a. process analysis
• b. goal setting
• c. algorithm
• d. heuristic

3. Learned helplessness is similar to Rotter’s ______ locus of control.

• a. segmental
• b. relational
• c. external
• d. internal

4. Iyengar & Lepper note that the more options you have:

• a. the higher your satisfaction
• b. the lower your satisfaction
• c. the kinder you become
• d. the easier it gets

5. Analogies serve the purpose of:

• a. simplification
• b. amplification
• c. lateralization
• d. regeneration

 

3. Framing & Priming

• Framing
• Priming
• Ariely

4. Loss Aversion

• Kahneman

5. Rotter

• Julian Rotter
  • combines behaviorism plus cognition
  • general expectation theory
  • BP = f(E & RV)
  • behavioral potential (BP)
  • expectations (E); likelihood
  • reinforcement value (RV); reward size
  • locus of control
  • “externals”
    • learned helplessness
  • “internals”

 

The Fox got caught because processing options:

• a. relieves anxiety
• b. relaxes you
• c. takes time
• d. is fun

2. Which will always work, even if it is not the fastest method:

• a. process analysis
• b. goal setting
• c. algorithm
• d. heuristic

3. Learned helplessness is similar to Rotter’s ______ locus of control.

• a. segmental
• b. relational
• c. external
• d. internal

4. Iyengar & Lepper note that the more options you have:

• a. the higher your satisfaction
• b. the lower your satisfaction
• c. the kinder you become
• d. the easier it gets

5. Analogies serve the purpose of:

• a. simplification
• b. amplification
• c. lateralization
• d. regeneration

 

1. The Fox got caught because processing options:

• a. relieves anxiety
• b. relaxes you
• c. takes time
• d. is fun

2. Which will always work, even if it is not the fastest method:

• a. process analysis
• b. goal setting
• c. algorithm
• d. heuristic

3. Learned helplessness is similar to Rotter’s ______ locus of control.

• a. segmental
• b. relational
• c. external
• d. internal

4. Iyengar & Lepper note that the more options you have:

• a. the higher your satisfaction
• b. the lower your satisfaction
• c. the kinder you become
• d. the easier it gets

5. Analogies serve the purpose of:

• a. simplification
• b. amplification
• c. lateralization
• d. regeneration

 

 

 

 

 

Terms

• aim higher
• anxiety
• attention
• avoid
• backward chain
• bits
• chaining
• charting
• chess positions
• chunk
• cluster or infographic
• digit span
• distributed practice
• don’t forget
• encoding specificity principle
• expanded-retrieval strategy
• faces 71%
• facts, concepts and behaviors
• flash cards
• focus
• forward chain
• four score and seven years ago…
• inkblots 48%
• usefulness of a retrieval cue depends on the nature of the initial encoding
• Jacobs, Joseph
• keeping things in memory is easier than putting them in memory
• Lincoln’s (Abraham) Gettysburg Address
• live fire
• magical number seven plus or minus two
• match learning & recall conditions
• Miller, George
• mind-map
• negative recognition
• performance
• practice with heavy bat
• priming
• proactive interference
• quizzes
• recallable words
• recognition failure
• recognition requires less brain activity than recall
• reduce
• release from proactive interference
• retrieval cue
• retrieving makes it easier to remember
• retroactive interference
• snowflakes 33%
• state dependent learning
• switch tasks when tired
• The man lifted the piano
• The man tuned the piano
• tracking behavior
• use external memory aids
• warm up
• write is down; look it up

Quiz

1. Focus, Avoid & Reduce are components of:

• a. Overlearning
• b. Clustering
• c. Chunking
• d. Attention

2. We become confident before we are actually:

• a. contralateral
• b. consolidated
• c. competent
• d. chained

3. The best way to learn a long poem or speech is:

• a. backward chaining
• b. forward chaining
• c. lateral chaining
• d. recognition failure

 

4. Concepts include:

• a. names
• b. places
• c. things
• d. rules

 

5. George Miller suggested that working memory holds:

• a. seven items (plus or minus two)
• b. twelve items (plus or minus two)
• c. six items (plus or minus three)
• d. two items (plus or minus twelve)

 

1. Focus, Avoid & Reduce are components of:

• a. Overlearning
• b. Clustering
• c. Chunking
• d. Attention

2. We become confident before we are actually:

• a. contralateral
• b. consolidated
• c. competent
• d. chained

3. The best way to learn a long poem or speech is:

• a. backward chaining
• b. forward chaining
• c. lateral chaining
• d. recognition failure

 

4. Concepts include:

• a. names
• b. places
• c. things
• d. rules

 

5. George Miller suggested that working memory holds:

• a. seven items (plus or minus two)
• b. twelve items (plus or minus two)
• c. six items (plus or minus three)
• d. two items (plus or minus twelve)