Learning

Do you every butt heads with your friends, family or coworkers? Are there times when frustration builds up and you think you’ll explode? Do you understand why you respond so strongly when someone cuts you off in traffic, and yet don’t feel that bad when. yo u half to cut someone else off?

In the 1960s, all the hippies wanted love and world peace. What’s less known is the social scientists of that era wanted the same things. So they set out to figure out to understand aggression, deprivation, prison dynamics and insensitivity to the pain of others. This birth of social psychology led to some of the best, and some of the worst, studies ever conducted.

 

Terms

• approach
• approach gradient
• approach-approach
• approach-avoidance
• avoidance
• avoidance gradient
• avoidance-avoidance
• conflict
• cue
• discrimination (tell them apart)
• Dollard, John (anthropologist)
• double approach-avoidance
• drive
• drive reduction
• external conflict
• Freud, Sigmund
• frustration
• Hull, Clark
• incompatible responses
• internal conflict
• interpersonal conflict
• labeling
• Miller, Neal (psychologist)
• misery
• neurotic
• primary drives
• primary reinforcers
• psychoanalytic learning theory
• punishment
• reinforcement
• resolved conflicts
• response
• Rumpelstiltskin
• secondary drives (acquired drive)
• secondary reinforcers
• shuttle box
• steepness (angle) of gradient
• straight-run maze
• stupid = unaware
• stupidity-misery syndrome
• unconscious behavior
• unlabled
• unresolved conflicts

Quiz

1. The closer you get to the cheese, the better it looks. This is the:

• a. reinforcement gradient
• b. eagerness gradient
• c. approach gradient
• d. way life works

2. You stay in the air as much as possible if you are in a:

• a. straight-run maze
• b. shuttle box
• c. conflict
• d. plane

3. Dollard & Miller combined the theories of Freud and:

• a. Aristotle
• b. Skinner
• c. Piaget
• d. Hull

4. When, where & how to respond are determined by the:

• a. reinforcer
• b. response
• c. punisher
• d. cue

5. When Dollard & Miller say “stupid” they mean:

• a. reinforced
• b. conflicted
• c. unlabeled
• d. labeled

 

1. The closer you get to the cheese, the better it looks. This is the:

• a. reinforcement gradient
• b. eagerness gradient
• c. approach gradient
• d. way life works

2. You stay in the air as much as possible if you are in a:

• a. straight-run maze
• b. shuttle box
• c. conflict
• d. plane

3. Dollard & Miller combined the theories of Freud and:

• a. Aristotle
• b. Skinner
• c. Piaget
• d. Hull

4. When, where & how to respond are determined by the:

• a. reinforcer
• b. response
• c. punisher
• d. cue

5. When Dollard & Miller say “stupid” they mean:

• a. reinforced
• b. conflicted
• c. unlabeled
• d. labeled

 

Dollard & Miller did a great job with their studies, even in you might not agree with all of their interpretations.

Here are 5 things we’ll cover:

• Conflict
• Conflict Types
• Dollard & Miller
• Four Processes
• Stupidity-Misery Syndrome

 

Conflict

 

• unresolved conflicts
• resolved conflicts
• internal conflict
• external conflict
• interpersonal conflict

2. Types of conflict

approach

• not a conflict, want something, approach it
• approach gradient
• closer get to the cheese, the better it looks
• closer you get, the more you want it
• start 3 weeks before vacation: not today but soon

avoidance

• not a conflict, you avoid it
• avoidance gradient
• closer you get, more you avoid it
• punishment at the end of the maze (small electric shock)
• paying taxes, put it off for as long as you can

approach-approach

• first type of conflict
• pretty mild, as conflicts go
• choice between two things you like
• pick whichever is closest or most convenient

avoidance-avoidance

• second type of conflict
• choice between two things you don’t like
• take out the garage or get yelled at
• straight-run maze with punishment at each end
• stay in the middle, don’t approach either end
• shuttle box = stay in the air as much as possible

approach-avoidance

• third type of conflict
• straight-run maze; both food and shock at the other end
• run toward the food (approach)
• closer it gets the slower it goes (avoidance)
• good looking but bad breath
• avoidance gradient is steeper than the approach gradient
• getting paid (approach) for working with people you don’t like (avoidance)
• getting closer to wedding; both gradients increase

double approach-avoidance

• fourth type of conflict
• straight-run maze, rat in put in the middle
• each end there is both food and shock
• rat runs to toward one end, slows down
• turns around & runs toward other end
• spends all of its time running back and forth
• choice between two alternatives, each with positive and negative factors

3. Dollard-Miller’s Psychoanalytic Learning Theory

• Dollard, John (anthropologist)
• Miller, Neal (psychologist)
• explain psychoanalytic principles in modern terms
• combined Sigmund Freud and Clark Hull
• Hull = behavior is reinforced by drive reduction
• drives are strong stimuli that produce discomfort (hunger, thirst, etc.)
• drive impels us to action
• drives
•    strong stimuli that produce discomfort (hunger, thirst, etc.)
•    impel us to action
•    operationally define drive as length of deprivation
•    increase in drive increases:
•        height (starting point) of the approach gradient but not angle
•        height (starting point) of the avoidance gradient but not angle
•        running speed. Faster speed (hungrier) but same dynamics
• triggered by a cue
• hungry (drive) & hear your tummy growl (cue)
• cue triggers a behavior to reduce the drive (get up and go to the kitchen)
• primary reinforcers = events that reduce primary drives (physiological processes)
• secondary reinforcers = events that reduce learned drives (acquired drives)
• cookies reduce primary drive (hunger) but not secondary drive (feeling loved)
• Unconscious behavior
  • unconscious behavior a central theme of their model
  • behaviors are unconscious because we’re unaware of the cues or unaware of the drive itself
  • unconscious means unlabeled
  • labeling plays makes us less neurotic

4. Four processes

• drive = the engine
• cue = when, where & how to respond
• response = behavior
• reinforcement = drive reduction
• keep trying different responses until one of them satisfies the drive
• don’t explain where the drives come from
• frustration = blocked attempt to reduce drive
• conflict = severe frustration; incompatible responses

5. Stupidity-misery syndrome

• neurotic = experiencing a strong, unconscious (unlabeled) emotional conflict
• can’t discriminate effectively and make bad decisions
• unaware of our conflict (stupid)
• make bad decisions that make us miserable
• misery is a result of not labeling our conflicts
• Rumpelstiltskin
• avoiding the anxiety of a conflict prevents drive from being reduced
• neurotic conflicts are taught by parents
• defines Freud’s term identification as imitating the behavior of another

 

 

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Bonus

Conflict Videos

 

Photo Credit

 

Hjjj

 

 

Terms

• apraxia
• associative theories
• attention
• attitudes
• autism
• babbling
• Bandura, Albert
• behavior replication
• Bobo The Clown
• coding
• cognitive structures
• concepts
• contiguity
• deferred imitation
• discover learning
• empathy
• encoding
• evolutionary value
• experimental methods
• fixed action pattern (FAP)
• gender appropriate behaviors
• gender roles
• incentives
• instinctive drift
• Intentional mirroring
• mirror neurons
• mirroring
• modeling
• models
• motivation
• observational learning
• past punishment
• past reinforcement
• peer group
• Piaget, Jean
• promised punishment
• promised reinforcement
• reciprocal determinism
• reproduction
• retention
• role models
• self-efficacy
• Skinner, B.F.
• sockeroo!
• species-specific behavior
• species-typical
• template
• traditions
• transformational theories
• types of behavior
• vicarious experience
• vicarious punishment
• vicarious reinforcement
• violence
• vocalizations

Quiz

1. Bandura is best known for his ____________ experiments:

• a. fixed action pattern
• b. Bobo The Clown
• c. contiguity
• d. babbling

2. Piaget coined the term:

• a. advanced redundancy
• b. delayed intimidation
• c. extended authority
• d. deferred imitation

3. Observational learning has:

• a. evolutionary value
• b. instinctive drift
• c. lateralization
• d. resonance

4. Incentives are:

• a. extended compensation
• b. transformational points
• c. radicalized motivators
• d. promised rewards

5. One reason NOT to keep tigers as pets is:

• a. clash with the furniture
• b. instinctive drift
• c. low cost
• d. apraxia

1. Bandura is best known for his ____________ experiments:

• a. fixed action pattern
• b. Bobo The Clown
• c. contiguity
• d. babbling

2. Piaget coined the term:

• a. advanced redundancy
• b. delayed intimidation
• c. extended authority
• d. deferred imitation

3. Observational learning has:

• a. evolutionary value
• b. instinctive drift
• c. lateralization
• d. resonance

4. Incentives are:

• a. extended compensation
• b. transformational points
• c. radicalized motivators
• d. promised rewards

5. One reason NOT to keep tigers as pets is:

• a. clash with the furniture
• b. instinctive drift
• c. low cost
• d. apraxia

Observational learning

 

1. Social Learning Theory

Watching others

Modeling can be general

• • broad concepts
  • attitudes
  • role models teach
  • peer group

Modeling can also be specific

• • template
  • evolutionary value

Types of behavior

• • Fixed Action Pattern (FAP) = all members of species do instinctively
  • Species-specific behavior = little variation
  • Species-typical = often do
  • Instinctive drift = back to innate response patterns

2. Three Major types of observational learning

Mirroring

• matching your behavior to another’s
• begins in the first days after birth
  • babies learn to look where you look
  • tilt their heads to the side if you do so
• watch close friends and relatives
  • posture, gestures and amount of eye contact match
  • wedding pictures
  • match without much mental processing
• mirror automatically
  • arguing with someone who waves their hands
  • someone yells
  • hold report in one hand
• Some people are naturally good at it
  • politicians
  • sales professionals
  • matching eye contact and posture
  • shift their level of vocabulary
• Intentionally mirror
  • job seekers
• We like being mirrored, if it is natural

Imitation

• More intentional
  • At 6 months of age, infants match sounds and vocalizations with those around them
  • At 6 months, babbling with accent
  • At 18 months old, toddlers talk toy phones like parents
  • At 36 months, kids pretend to get ready for work
  • Three-year-olds improve their language skills by imitation
  • Gramma says “Pop-Pop went bye-bye,” child says “Pop-Pop bye-bye”
• Imitation is copying
• Intentionally replicating a behavior
  • traditions and customs of our family
  • holidays
• It takes a while for our brains to develop the skill of imitation
  • parietal and frontal lobes have to mature
• Developmental disorders or strokes
  • apraxia = inability to successfully plan motor movements
  • can answer phone if it rings but cannot pretend to answer a phone
  • pucker lips to real lemon but they can’t pretend to do so
  • lose the ability to imitate
• Better at imitating as our brains grow
  • imitations are more accurate
• Better at extend the time between observation and behavior
  • Piaget = “deferred imitation”
• Children imitate rewarding and punishing
  • model generosity and kindness
  • model family yells and hits
• Children imitate gender appropriate behaviors
  • Mom carries a briefcase and Dad does the dishes
• Humans are not the only imitators
  • Birds imitate human voices
  • Bottlenose dolphins learn hunting from other dolphins by imitation
  • Japanese macaque monkeys who watch humans learn to wash potatoes before eating them

Modeling

• Most intentional type of observational learning
• Cognitive structures = models
• Build a model
• Modify model
• Modeling & vicarious experiences
  • sports fans
  • empathy
  • specialized neural circuits to track what others do
  •  “mirror neurons”
  • autism
• Models for things we should do
• Models for things we should avoid
  • two-step process: remember rule and remember to modify it
  • under pressure, remember rule but don’t modify it

Four stages of modeling

1. Attention

• Track the environment
• Pay attention to what is happening
• lLok for patterns
• Colorful and dramatic
• Attractive, or prestigious, or appears to be particularly competent
• Seems more like yourself

2. Retention

• Observe model
• Convert observations into rule
• Building of construct
• Remember
• Encode it as mental images

3. Reproduction

• Apply the rule
• Convert mental image to behavior
• Must have behavior in repertoire
• Better able to do behavior, better able to imitate
• Thinking about doing may help doing

4. Motivation

• Skinner = have not learned until you do
• Bandura = need a reason to demonstrate learning
• Motives don’t “cause” learning
  • Motives cause us to demonstrate what we have learned
• A reason for doing it
  • Past reinforcement = rewarded
  • Promised reinforcement = incentives
  • Vicarious reinforcement = seeing others rewarded
  • Past punishment
  • Promised punishment
  • Vicarious punishment

Two Types of Theories

• Two theories of modeling: association and transformation
• Associative theories
  • contiguity
  • activates us
  • requires little or no mental processing
  • no good evidence it exists
• Transformational theories
  • use cognitive processing to create mental structures
  • Bandura’s social cognitive theory

3. Bandura  (1925-present)

• Born December 4, 1925
• Mundare, Alberta, Canada
• “Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action.“

Behaviorism

• Experimental methods
• Environment causes behavior
• Too simplistic to explain aggression in adolescents

Social Learning Theory

• Modeling (observational learning)
• Discover learning
• Learning by observing & imitating model
• Model = person being observed

4. Reciprocal Determinism

• Environment causes behavior
• Behavior causes environment too
• Personality is interaction among: environment, behavior & person’s psychological processes (ability to create and manipulate images, and language

Principles

1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Coding modeled behavior into words, labels or images results in better retention than simply observing.
2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in outcomes they value.
3. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if the model is similar to the observer and has admired status and the behavior has functional value.

Self-efficacy

5. Bobo The Clown

• Bobo
  • Inflatable
  • 3-foot tall
  • Soft plastic
  • Egg-shaped
  • Weight in the bottom
  • Knock him down, comes back up
• Person dressed as Bobo
• Film
  • Person punched the clown
  • Shouting “sockeroo!”
  • Other versions
    • kicked it, sat on it, hit with little hammer,
    • shouting various aggressive phrases
  • Bandura showed his film to groups of kindergartners
  • They liked it
  • When let out to play; a brand new Bobo doll was there and a few little hammers
• Findings
  • Behavior of the children who saw the first film, without rewards or punishment, modeled that of the adult in the film.
  • They punched, kicked, hit with the hammer, and shouted “sockeroo,”; precisely imitating the woman model.
  • The children behaved more aggressively when they watched the film in which the adult models were rewarded.
  • The children behaved somewhat less aggressively when the adult models were punished. Yet, when prodded enough, most children were able to copy the hostile actions.
  • Removal of restraint was greatest for boys when the model was male.
  • Removal of restraint was greatest for girls when the model was female.
  • Boys were generally more violent and aggressive than girls.
• Bandura’s Conclusion
  • Reinforcement does not necessarily affect the learning of responses
  • It does determine whether or not these observationally learned responses are put into use.
• Criticisms
  • Bobo was intended to be hit
  • Works extremely well in the laboratory
  • where things can be held at a constant
  • Works only passably in the real life
  • Studies have shown that childhood viewing habits only accounted for ten percent of the difference in later aggression.
• (In ten-year studies)
  • The theory does not predict what the viewer will see as positive.

 

 

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Start here

[Read more…] about Schema

Jjjj

Context is a version of

Context means to weave ideas together. We experience things in one setting but they look different in another setting. Where we are when we pick out our socks makes a difference, because a dark closet is not the same context as your front yard. Perception depends on its context.

Thinking and learning depend on context too. You remember who was with you when. you saw your favorite movie for the first time. A candle lit dinner is not the same as one under fluorescent lights. When we store a memory, we also store location and environmental cues as well. We are very sensitive to our environment.

Here are 5 things we’ll discuss:

• Context Overview
• Encoding Specificity Principle
• Top-Down Processing
• State Dependent Learning
• Reinstatement

 

Text

• ambient lighting
• ambiguous item
• available cues
• b or a 13
• Baddeley, Alan
• bottom-up processing
• cold
• context
• context cues
• context-dependent learning
• cued recall
• decoding
• deductive
• deep sea divers
• deer driving
• down-up
• dress rehearsals
• Ebbinghuas
• emotion
• encoding
• Encoding Specificity Principle
• environmental cues
• episodic memories
• external context-dependent cues
• extract meaning
• far transfer
• flooded with memories
• free recall
• inductive
• internal state-dependent cues
• internal states
• location
• mood
• movie reviews
• multiple contexts
• music
• near transfer
• noise
• pain
• pattern recognition
• perception
• recall
• recognition
• recognition tests
• reinstatement
• retracing your steps
• retrieval mode
• smells
• state-dependent cues
• state-dependent learning
• Stroop Effect
• Stroop, John Ridley
• top-down processing
• triggers
• Tulving, Endel
• vvisualization
• within list associations
• word connections

Quiz

1. Which is a factor in context dependent learning:

• a. ambient lighting
• b. music
• c. noise
• d. all of the above

2. When you can read something as a b or 13, it is an:

• a. ambiguous item
• b. averaged cue
• c. analogical cue
• d. all of the above

3. Who stated the Encoding Specificity Principle:

• a. Baddeley
• b. Tulving
• c. Galton
• d. Stroop

4. Difficulty saying colors instead of words in shown in the:

• a. Ebbinghaus effect
• b. Polyanna effect
• c. Tulving effect
• d. Stroop effect

5. Retracing your steps to remember something is trying to activate:

• a. state dependent cues
• b. location cues
• c. far transfer
• d. flooding

1. Which is a factor in context dependent learning:

• a. ambient lighting
• b. music
• c. noise
• d. all of the above

2. When you can read something as a b or 13, it is an:

• a. ambiguous item
• b. averaged cue
• c. analogical cue
• d. all of the above

2. Who stated the Encoding Specificity Principle:

• a. Baddeley
• b. Tulving
• c. Galton
• d. Stroop

4. Difficulty saying colors instead of words in shown in the:

• a. Ebbinghaus effect
• b. Polyanna effect
• c. Tulving effect
• d. Stroop effect

5. Retracing your steps to remember something is trying to activate:

• a. state dependent cues
• b. location cues
• c. far transfer
• d. flooding

recognition

1. Context Overview

•    writing = words are woven together
•       combination of all the word connections
•    perception = yourself in relation to the world around you
•       how you, objects and places relate to each other

Context is the whole that is larger than the sum of its parts.

• People track their environments
•   use info to decide what to do in any given circumstance
•   discriminate between locations

Recall best when the encoding and decoding contexts are the same

•    learn in a quiet environment, recall in a quiet

Ebbinghuas & context: within list associations

External context makes a difference

• choose an encoding environment that is similar to where you must recall it

2. Encoding Specificity Principle

Endel Tulving, Canadian psychologist

• cued recall of word lists
• improved when the encoding and decoding contexts match
• location
• need to be in “retrieval mode”
•     trying to use all available cues

1970s, educators were freaking out; exact classroom?

• do best when the contexts match
• less well when less similar

retrieving episodic memories (stories of your life)

•    best when you recall them where you learned them
•    lost an idea, you go back to where you first had it and it reappears
•       retracing your steps triggers those original cues

location provides strong cues

•    drug rehab
•    cues can act as triggers of emotional responses

Alan Baddeley

deep sea divers

• cold (deeper you go underwater) acts a cue for learning
  • learning under water (20 feet below the surface) and recalling underwater
  • learning under water, recalling on land (by the shore)
  • learning on land, recalling on land
  • learning on land, recalling underwater
• in free recall, divers remembered best when the learning and remembering conditions matched

context depends on material

• depends on way you test = recall or recognition
• recognition tests
•    context and environment cues don’t help much
• free recall, environmental cues are more helpful
•    particularly for episodic memories

back to the house; flooded with memories

context clues help us learn

•    top of page 34
•     circled it with colored chalk
•    home court advantage

3. Top-down and down-up processing

Down-up is inductive

Top-down is deductive

• hunting season shooting a fellow hunter
•    deer driving
•    deer dressed in orange.
• Stroop Effect: top-down processing
•    brain recognizes words, wants to process them as words

ambiguous item

•    b or a 13 depending on its context

Use context to extract meaning when we read

•    movie reviews
•    political ads
•    take comments out of context

4. State-dependent learning

• internal states
• mood
• pain
• state-dependent cues
• internal states can act as cues
• advertisers show people having fun
• emotion impacts our recall
  •    When you are happy, remember happy
  •    When you are depressed, remember depressed
• drugs

Encoding specificity principle applies to music, smells, and ambient lighting

5. Reinstatement of context

• Can overcome external context-dependent cues
• First, imagine you are underwater
•    Visualizing removed most of the blockage
•    Performance not as good but quite close.
•    Your ability to visualize makes a difference
•    consciously generate environmental cues
• Second, use multiple contexts
•    study under quiet and noisy conditions
•    study under bright and dim lighting
•    study for recognition and recall
•    more variations of environmental cues, the less impact they have

Extends to learning skills

•   far transfer
•   near transfer
•     Karate Kid
•    Beechcraft and Cessna

More dress rehearsals

 

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9

 

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When computers were the size of living rooms, paper cards were punched with holes. Each card carried a very limited amount of information. Stacks and stacks of cards were needed to added a few number together or generate a sales report.

Although computer encoding has changed a lot, human encoding remains the same. In order to process information we must input it and, eventually, decode (retrieve it). Here”s how it works.

Here are 5 things we’ll cover:

• Metacognition
• Encoding
• Distinctiveness
• Encoding Tips

 

Story

Terms

• One of these things is not like the other”
• “Right after these messages”
• acetylcholine
• acoustic encoding
• age-dependent memory loss
• Alzheimer’s
• anterograde amnesia
• attention
• background suppression
• blocking
• Broadbent, Donald
• Cabrera, Derek
• categorize
• change blindness
• closure
• cocktail party effect
• connections
• context
• contextual distinctiveness
• distinctions
• distinctiveness
• DSRP
• editing
• elaboration encoding
• elaboration mnemonics
• emotional distinctiveness
• encoding
• encoding specificity principle
• filter theory
• generate answers-examples
• genes
• hippocampus
• inattentionally blind
• incomplete circles
• interactive images
• interrupted tasks
• invisible gorilla
• khaki
• meaning extraction
• memory loss
• metacognition
• most important first
• most important last
• movement
• nursing-home patients
• organizing
• Parkinson’s
• perspectives
• physical exercise
• poisons
• Pollyanna effect
• positive things
• primacy
• primary distinctiveness
• prospecting
• recency
• reduction mnemonics
• rehearse
• relating
• relationships
• rewards
• robust effect
• ROPES
• saccades
• secondary distinctiveness
• self-referent
• semantic encoding
• similarities & differences
• smoking
• splitting
• steady-state information
• syphilis
• systems
• tactile encoding
• teach others
• teach yourself
• texture
• unresolved chords
• verbal intelligence
• vibrations
• visual encoding
• visualization
• von Restorff Effect
• Zeigarnik Effect

Quiz

1. Self-awareness of how your mind works is:

• a. systematization
• b. metacognition
• c. concentration
• d. regeneration

2. “Tuning out” inputs that don’t interest us can be seen in the:

• a. cocktail party effect
• b. von Restorff effect
• c. Pollyanna effect
• d. Zeigarnik effect

3. The chances are about 50/50 that you will notice:

• a. what others are saying at a cocktail party
• b. an “invisible gorilla”
• c. two turtle doves
• d. your first car

4. Not noticing changes in things we are attending to is:

• a. inattentional blindness
• b. perspective blindness
• c. change blindness
• d. face blindness

5. The D in Derek Cabrera’s four universal metacognitive skills stands for:

• a. disengagement
• b. distinctions
• c. distortions
• d. dinosaurs

1. Self-awareness of how your mind works is:

• a. systematization
• b. metacognition
• c. concentration
• d. regeneration

2. “Tuning out” inputs that don’t interest us can be seen in the:

• a. cocktail party effect
• b. von Restorff effect
• c. Pollyanna effect
• d. Zeigarnik effect

3. The chances are about 50/50 that you will notice:

• a. what others are saying at a cocktail party
• b. an “invisible gorilla”
• c. two turtle doves
• d. your first car

4. Not noticing changes in things we are attending to is:

• a. inattentional blindness
• b. perspective blindness
• c. change blindness
• d. face blindness

5. The D in Derek Cabrera’s four universal metacognitive skills stands for:

• a. disengagement
• b. distinctions
• c. distortions
• d. dinosaurs

 

Structural

 

1. Metacognition

Attention

• • Cocktail Party Effect
  • Inattentional Blindness
  • Change Blindness

Encoding Mechanisms

• • Visual Encoding
  • Acoustic Encoding
  • Tactile Encoding
  • Semantic Encoding

2. Encoding

Distortion

• • Little Mermaid

Encoding Specificity Principle

3. Distinctiveness

Primary

• • contextual
  • von Restorff Effect

Secondary

• • 1^st time
  • incongruent with past experience

Emotional

• • Zeigarnik Effect
  • closure

4. Encoding Tips

• clustering
• blocking
• categories
• similarities
• differences
• self-referent

5. Decoding Tips

• Decoding = retrieving
• 3 types
  • free recall
  • cued recall
  • serial recall
• 5 Tips
  • incubation
  • retrieval
    • often
    • same order
  • clusters & categories
  • perspective
  • lexical retrieval
    • starts with letter…

Mind Map

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