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Here are my notes on this topic:

1. Drive-reduction theory

• Need or desire
• energizes and directs behavior
• Freud
  • physiological need creates increased tension or pressure (drive)
  • Drive motivates organism to satisfy need
• Seek homeostasis
  • Balance
  • Constant internal state
  • Regulation of body chemistry
• Dollard. & Miller
  • Conflict
  • Approach-approach
  • Avoidance-avoidance
  • Approach-avoidance
  • Double approach avoidance
  • Frustration hypothesis
• Incentives
  • positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior
• Instinct
  • complex unlearned behavior
  • rigidly patterned throughout a species

2. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

• Self-actualization
• Esteem needs
• Belongingness and love needs
• Safety needs
• Physiological needs

3. Hunger

• Set point
• Metabolic rate
• Eating disorders
• Anorexia Nervosa
  • Underweight
  • More women than men
  • Most common in adolescence
  • 30% die
• Bulimia Nervosa
  • Binge-purge
  • Vomit
  • Laxative

4. Sexual Response Cycle

• Excitement
• Plateau
• Orgasm
• Resolution
• Refractory period
• Estrogen
• Imaginative stimuli
• External stimuli
• Physiological readiness
• Sexual disorders
  • Premature ejaculation
  • Orgasmic disorder
• Sexual orientation

5. Achievement motivation

• Intrinsic-extrinsic motivation
• Theory X = workers are lazy
• Theory Y = motivated by self esteem & creativity

Here are my notes on this topic:

1. Allport

• Trait Theory
• 1^st modern personality trait theorist
• dictionaries for words that described personality
• 17,953 adjectives
• settled on 4504 of them.
• Common Traits
  • Most were “common traits”
  • traits we all hold in common
  • Some have a lot of one
  • Some have only a smidge
• Personal dispositions
  • Unique Traits
  • People can have individual traits unique to them
  • Bridged the “lots of traits” and the “only a few traits” debate by combining them.
  • central core is our sense of self
  • Three Types
    • Cardinal
    • Central: 5-10 traits
    • Secondary
  • Proprium
    • Core to personality: a proprium.
    • Six stages

2. Group Dynamics

• Norms
  • ​Rules about how group members should act
• ​Specific Roles
• ​​Social Loafing
  • When individuals do not put in as much effort when acting as part of a group as they do when acting alone
• Group Polarization
  • The tendency of a group to make more extreme decisions than the group members would make individually
• Groupthink
  • ​The tendency for some groups to make bad decisions
  • Group members suppress their reservations about the ideas the group supports

3. Three Studies

Zimbardo

• Stanford Prison Experiment
• ​Philip Zimbardo (the devil)
• Simulated prison
• Students took to assigned roles too well
• Ended early​
• Deindividuation
• Groups members feel anonymous and aroused
• Loss of self restraint
• People do things they never would have done on their own

Milgram

• Conformity
• ​The tendency to go along with the views or actions of others
• ​​Solomon Asch 1951 Experiment
  • ​brought participants into a room of confederates
  • asked them to make simple perceptual judgments
  • showed 3 vertical lines and asked which was the same length as a target line
  • ​had to answer out loud
  • confederates gave a unanimous, obviously wrong answer
  • 70% of participants conformed on at least 1 trial
• Obedience Studies
  • ​Focus on the willingness of participants to do what another asks
• The Milgram Experiment 1974
  • ​told participants it was a study about teaching and learning
  • participants were told to administer “electric shocks”
  • over 60% delivered all possible shocks
• Compliance Strategies
  • ​​​Strategies to get others to comply with your wishes
  • Foot-in-the-door Phenomenon
  • If you can get people to agree to a small request, they will become more likely to agree to a larger follow-up request
  • Door-in-the-face Strategy
  • After people refuse a large request, they will look more favorably upon a smaller follow-up request
  • Norms of Reciprocity
  • The tendency to think that when someone does something nice for you, you should do something nice in return

Festinger’s Cognitive Dissonance Theory

• People are motivated to have consistent attitudes and behaviors
  • when they don’t, they experience dissonance
  • unpleasant mental tension
• Experiment- Festinger and Carlsmith
  • participants performed a boring task
  • asked to tell next subject that they enjoyed it
  • subjects paid $1 to lie had more positive attitudes toward the experiment than those paid $20
  • they lacked sufficient external motivation to lie
  • reduced dissonance by changing attitudes

4. Four More Studies

Robbers Cave Study

• ​Sherif 1966
• ​​divided campers into 2 groups
• ​had them compete in a series of activities to create animosity
• ​staged camp emergencies as superordinate goals
• ​improved relations between the groups

Pygmalion

• Self-fulfilling Prophecy
• The expectations we have about others can influence their behavior
• “Pygmalion in the Classroom” experiment
• Rosenthal and Jacobson 1968
  • administered an IQ test to elementary school students
  • said it would measure who was on the verge of academic growth
  • randomly picked a group of students
  • claimed they were ripe for intellectual progress
  • measured IQs again at the end of the year
  • the scores of the randomly picked students improved more than those of their classmates

Diffusion of Responsibility

• Bystander Intervention
• The conditions under which people are more or less likely to help someone in trouble
• The larger the group of people who witness a problem, the less responsible any one individual feels to help

Attraction

• Fundamental Principle
• We like others who:
  • are similar to us
  • similarity: with whom we come into frequent contact
  • proximity: who return our positive feelings
  • reciprocal liking
• Self-Disclosure
• Sharing a piece of personal information with another person
• The Influence of Others on an Individual’s Behavior

5. Sexual Norms

• Kink vs Vanilla
  • sexual fetishism
  • non-conventional sexual practices
  • BDSM, leather, LGBTQ (the Q)
    • BDSM. 2-62%
  • Australians in last 12 months
    • 1.3% woman
    • 2.2% men
• B&D
  • 60% fantasize
  • 10% participate
• Christian Joyal (2015)
  • surveyed 1,500 women and men
• Sexual fantasies
  • Being dominated
  • 64.6% women
  • 53.3% men
• Sick
  • Freud                   yes
  • Pamela Connolly
    • compared to published norms on 10 psychological disorders.
    • lower depression, anxiety, PTSD
    • sadism, masochism, borderline
    • equal levels of OCD
    • higher narcissism
• Spanked & tied up makes you high
  • images of
  • bondage, disciple, sadomasochism, dominance, submission
  • endorphin rush (runner’s high)
  • pain, acting out fantasy & sex
• Power exchange
  • Pain of peppers
  • Classical conditioning
  • click of boot with licking boot
  • Operant (humiliation punishment)
  • Scenes & play together
• Group activities
  • Safe, Sane & Consensual
    • Safe word
    • Red-yellow-green
• Bondage
• Dominance
  • Can be abusive
  • Voluntary
  • Time limit
• Submission
  • Traditional woman’s role
  • Collar ceremony
• Not orientation specific
• S&M
• Leather
• Pet Play
  • Humiliation
  • Fun
  • Abusive

Here are my notes on this topic:

1. Tversky & Kahneman

Judgement

• Heuristics
  • Rules of thumb
  • Work most of the time
  • Easy to apply\
• Availability Heuristic
  • Must be true if I think of it easily
  • Use examples that come to mind
  • Farmers & Librarians

Decision Making

• Fast & Slow
• Dual-System Theory of Thinking
• System 1
  • System 1 is “home” of:
  • Heuristics
  • Cognitive bias (systematic errors)
  • Availability heuristic
  • Anchoring
  • Intuitive, automatic, experience-based, and relatively unconscious
  • rooted in impressions
• System 2
  • reflective, controlled, deliberative, and analytical.
  • monitors or provides a check on mental operations and overt behavior—often unsuccessfully.

2. Rational choice theory

• Free market
• Independent choice
• People are rational
• Use cost-benefit analysis
• 3 factors
  • Rational actors
  • Self interest
  • Invisible hand
    • Adam Smith, 1759
    • unintended greater social benefits and public good brought about by individuals acting in their own self-interest

3. Predictably Irrational

• Anchoring
• Cognitive fixedness
• Good comparative deciders
• Make rationally-irrational decisions
• Ignore facts
• Misinterpret data
• Gambler’s fallacy

4. Dan Ariely

• Ikea Effect
  • people tend to place greater value on things they make or assemble
  • effort effect
• Beer
  • alcohol has a lot to do with expectations
  • Study 1
  • blind taste test, which want full glass of?
  • Regular beer vs special beer
  •   prefer special beer
  • Budweiser vs Sam Adams
  •   no difference
  • Study 2
  • told up front that one is regular and one has balsamic vinegar
  •   prefer regular beer
  • Study 3
  • Half told upfront, given choice
  • Half told after taste, given choice
  • Results
  • Senses first, ignore cognitive expectation
  • Cognitive (top-down) expectation first, stick with cognitive rule
  • Brain chances the way we perceive?

• Self Control
  • Movies
  • Chocolate
  • Global warming
  • Clocky
  • Reward substitution
  • Self-control contracts
    • Ulysses
    • informal
    • formal
  • if-then
    • Money to charity
    • If don’t, money to cause you like
    • If don’t, money to cause you hate
    • Loss aversion
  • Drug program

5. Rotter

• combines behaviorism plus cognition
• general expectation theory
• BP = f(E & RV)
  • behavioral potential (BP)
  • expectations (E); likelihood
  • reinforcement value (RV); reward size
• locus of control
  • “externals”
  • learned helplessness
  • “internals”

Here are my notes on this topic:

1. Trait Theory

You are what you were destined to be

You cannot change who you are

Ancient Trait Theory

Chinese Zodiac (3500 years ago)

• Shun Dynasty
• Complicated system of prediction
•   12 animals
•   5 elements
•   2 phases: yang & yin
•   60 year cycle
• Plus
•   year born: how others see you
•   month born: how see self (wish to be)
•   2 hr block of time: secret self
•   heavenly sign
•   earthly sign
•   combination sign

Hippocrates. (2500 years ago)

• Greek physician
• Father of medicine
• Hippocratic oath named in his honor
• 4 elements of life
• 4 body fluids (humors)
•   Good humor = fluids in balance

Galen (2000 years ago)

• Builds on Hippocrates
• 4 personality types
•   Choleric: yellow bile from the liver
•   Melancholic: black bile from kidneys
•   Sanguine: red blood from heart
•   Phlegmatic: white bile from lungs

Modern Trait Theory

Gall

• phrenology

Hans Eysenck

• “Personality is determined in Large Part by a Person’s Genes.”
• emphasize temperature (genetic), not character (learned)
• PEN
•   psychoticism
•   extroversion
•   neuroticism

William Sheldon

• photos of 4000 men
• 3 body types & personality types
• endomorph = social, affectionate
• mesomorph = energetic, competitive
• ectomorph = inhibited, intellectual

Terror Management Theory

Self-esteem as an anxiety buffer.

• Individualism vs. collectivism

Big Five

• Build on Raymond Cattell’s work
  • factor analysis
  • correlations between variables
  • identify closely related clusters
• Personality is a person’s unique constellations of consistent behavior traits
  • durable disposition
• Robert McCrae & Paul Costa
• Extraversion – Outgoing, Sociable, Upbeat, Friendly, Assertive.
• Neuroticism – Anxious, Hostile, Self-Conscious, Insecure, Vulnerable.
• Openness to Experience – Curiosity, Flexibility, Imagitiveness, Artistic, Unconventional.
• Agreeableness – Sympathetic, Trusting, Cooperative, Modest, Straightforward.
• Conscientiousness – Diligent, Disciplined, Organized, Punctual, Dependable.
• The Big 5 traits are similar across cultures
• OCEAN or CANOE

2. Psychodynamic Perspectives

• unconscious mental forces

Sigmund Freud

• Structure of personality
• ID
•   pleasure principle
•   demands instant gratification
•   urges
• Ego
•   reality principle
•   decision making
•   deals with outside world
•   searches for things to appease id
• Superego
•   moral regulator
•   upholds social standards
•   conscience = punishes for things done wrong
•   ego ideal = punishes for things not perfect
• Levels of Awareness
  • conscious
  • preconscious
  • unconscious
• Anxiety & Defense Mechanisms
  • unconscious conflicts between id, ego & superego produces anxiety
  • defense mechanisms are automatic unconscious reactions that “defend” the ego & lower anxiety temporarily
  • rationalization = reason for having done something
  •   sang out of tune because microphone was pink
  •   lost game because didn’t have lucky socks
  • repression = unconsciously bury distressing thoughts, feelings and memories
  • projection = see unwanted self in others
  • displacement = kick desk instead of boss
  • reaction formation = super nice to people you hate
  • regression = revert to immature behavior
  • identification = gain self esteem by association
  •   being a fan of a celebrity makes me feel better about myself
  •   being supporter of team makes me a winner
  •   stage mother
• Psychosexual Stages
  • fixation: get stuck at one stage
  • oral stage – 1st year
  • anal stage – 2nd year
  • phallic stage – 3-5 years
  •   Oedipal complex = sexual desire for opposite parent
  • latency stage – 6 to puberty
  • genital stage – puberty+

Carl Jung

• analytical psychology
• personal unconscious
• collective unconscious
• archetypes
• introverts & extraverts

Alfred Adler

• individual psychology
• striving for superiority: drive to improvement
• compensation

3. Behavioral & Social Cognitive

Skinner, BF

• behaviorism
• study only observable behavior.
• no free will.
• personality is a product of conditioning.

Albert Bandera

• social cognitive theory
• reciprocal determinism
• observational learning
• model
• self-efficacy

Walter Michel

• marshmallows
• delaying self-gratification
• cognitive strategies

4. Humanism & Existential

• reaction to behaviorism
• emphasizes importance of being human
• we are more than conditioning
• potential of personal growth
• phenomenological approach

Carl Rogers

• person centered theory
• self-concept
• incongruence: self-concept vs actual experience

Abraham Maslow

• self-actualization
• hierarchy of needs pyramid
• safety to self-actualization

Viktor Frankl

• existentialism
• the importance of being
• Man’s Search For Meaning

5. Cognitive Behavioral

Aaron Beck (1921-)

• Theory
  • no fixed personality structures
  • dreams reflect 3 common themes: defeat, deprivation and loss\
  • schemas = assumptions about how world operates
  • philosophy = 3 main sources: Kant, Freud, & Kelly
  • How one thinks determines how one feels and behaves
  • choose to be rational
  • targets assumptions
• Schemas
  • cognitive structures
  • superordinate schemas = central values
  • cognitive structures = core beliefs & assumptions about how the world operates
  • schemas can be adaptive or maladaptive
  • schemas can be general or specific
• Cognitive distortions = systematic errors in reasoning
• sociotropic dimension = dependence on others
• autonomous dimension = independence

Albert Ellis (1913-2007)

• Theory
  • confront people with their irrational beliefs, persuade them to adopt rational ones
  • rational psychotherapy = focus on rational, not irrational thinking
  • Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy; primarily a cognitive behavioral therapy
  • 4 fundamental processes: perception, movement, thinking, emotion
  • Thoughts and emotions frequently overlap, so much of emotion is evaluative thinking
  • self-talk; internalized sentences determine our thoughts and emotions
  • emotional disturbance = caring too much what others think
• ABC theory of personality
  • Activating event
  • Belief system
  • Emotional consequence
• Musturbatory belief system = absolute musts
• Myths:
  • personality disorders mainly stem from parental rejection
  • feelings of worthlessness arise from constant criticism
  • sexual abuse victims invariably continue to suffer as adults;
  • Increasingly believes that heredity has a large influence on humans (80%)
• Therapy
• Very directive approach, people must judge behavior in terms of what right for them
• Goal of therapy is to:
  • enable clients to commit themselves to actions that correspond to true value system
  • free individuals to develop a constructive and confident image of self-worth
• Highly active, directive, didactic, philosophic, homework assigning therapy
• how to recognize Should and Must thoughts
  • how to separate rational from irrational beliefs
  • how to accept reality
  • reduce disturbance-creating ideas to absurdity
• Cognitions, emotions and behaviors are consistently interactional and transactional
• Techniques
  • in vitro desensitization = imagined exposure to noxious stimuli paired with relaxation
  • in vivo desensitization = gradual exposure to actual tasks or circumstances
  • client told to deliberately fail at a small task (show can survive a failure)
  • implosive desensitization = sudden confrontation of phobic situation (ethical?)

Here are my notes on this topic:

1. Personality vs habits

• Regularly repeated behavior
• requires little or not thought
• Developed by repetition
• Developed by reinforcement?

2. Guthrie

• Puzzle boxes
• One-shot learning
• Chain of behavior
• More dress-rehearsals
• Different response to same stimuli

3. Habit Loop

• Proposes reinforcement hypothesis
• Characteristics
• Criticisms

4. Making habits

• Flow
• Decide where in behavioral change to put
• Repetitions
• How long is enough

5. Breaking habits

• FITS
• fatigue
• incompatible response
• threshold
• sidetracking

Here are my notes on this topic:

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