French Psychology

French Psychology was both influenced by German Psychology and independent of it. It has its own approach and its own heroes.

France, like most of the world, embraced a spiritualism approach to psychology. The emphasis was on the mind, and the supernatural. Science was just discovering electricity, chemistry, and physics. One of the most popular demonstrations at the 1900 Exhibition in Paris was a ride in a hot air balloon. Anything seemed possible. Talking to spirits didn’t seem out of the question.

Spiritualism was a big deal for well over 50 years. Its antecedents can be traced to exorcism and the afterlife. Exorcism because of the belief that spirits can possess you. Even if they can be removed, it is not an easy process. Afterlife became of Swedenborg‘s twist of theology.

Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772) replaced a single heaven and hell with a multilevel system. Spirits moved between levels, and acted as messengers. It was possible but likely to receive messages from beyond. You don’t have to seek them. They will come to you. In 1741, he had several mystical experiences that convinced him God wanted to new a new church.

A later influence, was the pseudoscience approach of Franz Anton Mesmer (1734-1815). Mesmer started with Newton’s ideas of tidal influences. He reasoned that magnetism could help realign the body’s fluids, improving or curing disorders.

At first he had patients swallow iron filings. He then would use magnets to improve the flow. He then refined the method by using his own animal magnetism. Simply by moving his hands over the body (no touch required) energy would be transferred from him to the patient. This became a common practice among neurologists in the 1800s, including Freud. A similar procedure of full body massages were conducted by male neurologists on their female patients , touching the m wherever and however frequently they wished.

Mesmerism became known as hypnosis. Less emphasis was placed on the effects of a full moon. The process was re-characterized as biological, not mystic.

A third factor was two girls who lived in upstate New York. Forty years after he fact they admitted they had faked the whole thing. But at the time they claimed to have contacted the spirit world. Age 11 and 14, Kate and Margaret Fox would ask the spirits questions. For their part, the spirits would respond by tapping one for yes, two for no.

Not only were their parents surprised, so were the nearly 400 people who gathered in the town hall. This was the proximal cause of spiritualism. Soon, many claimed to be able to contact the spirit world.

As casualties rose during the U.S. Civil War, there was increased interest in contacting the departed. A similar pattern occurred in England during and after WWI. Grief is a strong motivator. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1859–1930) became an advocate of spiritualism after the death of his son.

This is the context into which psychoanalysis and experimental psychology emerged.

Roots of Psychoanalysis

* Some views expressed may offend some people. No offense is intended. If your religious beliefs include hysteria, hypnosis, Freud, or multiple personalities, I completely understand. You are not alone. And it is difficult to change basic beliefs. I fully support your right to believe anything you wish, although I reserve the right to think you daft.

Charcot, Jean-Marin (1825-1893)

French neurologist Charcot
Charcot was a world renown neurologist. Sometimes called founder of modern neurology, students and patients come from across Europe to see him. Although not officially listed as a hospital, his Pitié-Salpêtrière was an educational institute and hospital. It might well be called a research hospital today. It was where all the hard cases went.

Charcot was the first to describe multiple sclerosis (multiple scares). Rips in myelin which surrounds neurons occur in many different locations, interrupting the flow of neural messaging. Physicians use Chatcot’s triad as a screening device for the disorder. Initial signs of the disorder are nystagmus (uncontrollable eye movements), telegraphic speech (talking like a two-year old) and intentional tremor (shake when trying to reach something; the exact opposite of the resting tremors of Parkinson’s).

Charcot also studied Parkinson’s disease. Named after James Parkinson, this disorder is caused by a loss of dopamine in the Limbic system. Shaking occurs at rest but not when you reach for a glass of water.

Dispute its name Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease is not a dental disorder. CMT is an inherited neurological disorder impacting both sensory and motor neurons. In contrast, ALS impacts only the motor neurons. Ironically,CMT becomes quite painful as you lose touch sensations in your legs, hands and feet. Loss of muscle strength leads to “drop foot,”falls and balance problems. Loss of muscle mass Makes legs look like upside-down champagne bottles. As inherited neurological conditions go, CMT is quite common but I t’s still 10x less likely than getting hit by lightning.

Charcot is probably best known for three things that don’t exist: multiple personalities, hysteria and hypnosis. Both were thought to be biological but are now thought to be mythical. Hysteria is so named because the womb wanders throughout the body, causing problems. Used mostly as against women when they present symptoms doctors can’t fix. If a doctor can’t diagnose you with a disease they know, they tend not to they don’t know what’s wrong with you, but claim it on you. Even though there is no evidence of psycho-somatic illnesses, it is such a common Freudianism it has been commonly accepted in the culture. It is an example of a we-believe-it-so-it-must-be-true cognitive distortion.

Multiple personality is a fake disorder that Charcot thought was biological. Popularized by movies like Three Faces Of Eve, there is no clinical proof it exists. In fact the author of the underlying book says it was a fraud but the dame was done. Again this is a Freudian principle gone wrong. No repressed memories, no splitting or multiplying personalities.

Both Freud and Charcot were wrong to believe in hypnosis but they were wrong in different ways. Charcot thought it was a biological process. Freud was more associated with the School at Nancy which took a more assertive view. Modern examples include repetitive movements (being in the flow), Lamaze birthing techniques (distraction) and meditative focus.

Marie, Pierre (1853–1940)

A student of Charcot, Marie was a prominent neuroscientist. He studied the cerebrum, pituitary gland, and spine. He is associated with several disorders, including aphasia, foreign accent syndrome and other language disorders. Other disorders are Marie’s anarthria (cerebral lesions), Marie’s2 ataxia (atrophy of the cerebellum), Marie-Foix-Alajouanine syndrome (spinal cord deformity), and Marie–Strümpel Disease (also called Bechterew’s disease; inflammation of the spine)

Pascal, Constance (1877-1937)

Born in Romania and educated in Paris, Pascal was the first woman in France to become a psychiatrist. She was also the first woman in France to head a hospital. The late 1800s was v time of new ideas, including the educating of women.

After medical school came an internship at the Pitié-Salpêtrière hospital. Jean-Martin Charcot.was no longer alive but his hospital system and philosophy still overshadowed the training there.

In 1920, Pascal became the director and chief physician at Premontre, followed by Châlons-sur-Marne, and Roger-Prévot in Moisselles. In 1927, she became the chief physician in the Maison Blanche neighborhood of Paris.

Pascal wrote on the social and biological factors of dementia praecox, what is now called schizophrenia. He work included descriptions of using shock treatments for the condition.

Janet, Pierre Marie Felix (1859-1947)

French neuroscientist Janet

France had its share of non-scientists too. Janet’s ideas paralleled or preceded those of Sigmund Freud. Freud gave him credit, at one point, for some ideas but only temporarily. Jung studied with Janet in 1902, and incorporated Janet’s idea of a fixed subconscious into his work. Alder’s inferiority complex also reflected Janet’s approach.

Janet was a clinician, not a researcher; a physician, not a psychologist. He is best known for his advocacy of hypnosis, his views on hysteria, and for coining the terms dissociation, subconscious, and magnet passion (rapport or transference)

Janet proposed nine developmental tendencies of increasing complexity. As we grow, we pass through the phases or tendencies. This is a very loose stage theory of development. In 1902, Janet received the chair of experimental and comparative psychology at the College of France.

Tourette, George’s Gilles de la (1857-1904)

Following the medical path of Charcot, not the scientific path of Ribot, Tourette is best known for his work on movement disorders. His description of a compulsive tic disorder became known as Tourette Syndrome. In 1883, a former patient shot him in the neck. She claimed she had been hypnotized against her will. Tourette recovered but remained depressed and in ill health. He was later diagnosed with syphilis.

Experimental Psychology

It was a battle between faith and science. Spiritualism, hypnosis and phrenology developed out of the faith side. Out of the science side, came Wundt, Stumpf, William James and Ribot.

The most famous psychologist in France is Théodule-Armand Ribot. He is the equivalent of Germany’s Wundt or America’s Skinner. Ribot was the founder of scientific psychology in France. He changed everything. He was a major influence during his life, and is still a prominent figure.

Ribot, Théodule-Armand (1839-1916)

Ribot: father of French psychology

Search online for Ribot, you are likely to find Ribot the horse. Although he was foaled in Newmarket, England, Ribot was of Italian ownership and breeding. He may have been the best horse of his era (195os) but we interested in the human Ribot of the 1800s.

In many ways less is known of him. If you check Wikipedia, the horse gets 2-3 times as much coverage. Yet Théodule-Armand Ribot was and still is the most famous psychologist in France. Germany had Wundt, America had William James, France had Ribot.

Born in northwestern France, Ribot went to a teachers college (École normale supérieure) in Paris, and spent a half dozen years teaching high school. He came from humble beginnings, and his ideas have been virtually ignored in America. Yet his books and scholarly journal (Revue Philosophique de la France) were translated into many languages and distributed worldwide.

The Sorbonne was the premier institution of scientific knowledge in France. It was very traditional, and still embraced spiritualism psychology. When he gave his lectures on experimental psychology in 1885, it was against the wishes of the Sorbonne. They didn’t want any heretical ideas. The pressure was mounting against them, so the offered Ribot the opportunity to speak on a complementary, elective basis. This was not to be construed as acceptance.

But Ribot won out. In 1888, he received a chair at the College of France, located next door to the Sorbonne. The College was restricted to 40 chairs.

Eibot’s Law

In dementia, recent memories will disappear before older memories. As it turns out, the law doesn’t a—lay to everyone. In that sense, it is more of a general truth than a law. But it is generally true. Recent memories are less stable than those you’ve had a long time.

When evaluating a person who has fallen or been injured, it is common to ask them their name. There is some value in establishing a report with someone and being friendly. But the primary purpose is a memory test. You have heard your name your whole life. It is baked in. If you can’t remember your name, something is seriously wrong.

Robot’s Approach

Ribot’s greatest influence is in the attitude French psychology takes. In contrast to American psychology, French psychology looks for pathology. In America, there are many courses in psychology: learning, motivation, social psychology, etc. All present principles of normal processes and behavior. There is one class on abnormal psychology.

In French psychology, all classes are about abnormal behavior. It was Ribot’s belief that focusing on what can go wrong highlights and clarifies normal processes. To understand learning, study the pathology of learning. To understand memory, study the pathology of memory.

Ribot hypothesized three levels of dissolution: strong, resistive and weak. Strong memories are strongly organized. They are stable and can be combined with other memories. Resistive are the middle level. They resist disorganization but not always successfully. Weak memories fall apart easily.

Strong, resistive and weak are applied to many topics. These labels are part of the Pathological Method. Will is described strong, weak or resistive. Attention is too.

Binet, Alfred (1857-1911)

French psychology: Binet

He is best known for his development of the first widely used test of intelligence. Binet believed that intelligence is a cluster of abilities and is greatly influenced by environment. Consequently, Binet argued that normal children could be trained to learn more and that even mentally “subnormal” children could increase their intelligence if given special attention. He devised a system of “mental orthopedics” to improve attention and increase intelligence.

Binet’s parents separated when he was young His father was a successful physician; his mother was an artist. His family was wealthy and Binet attended the finest schools in Nice and Paris, graduating from the Sorbonne with a degree in law, In addition to his formal education, Binet read the works Darwin, Galton and JS MIll. He was interested in a wide range of topics and had the time and money to pursue them all. Although financially secure, Binet was not an instant success. He worked with Jean-Martin Charcot and studied hypnosis. Charcot maintained that hypnosis was a physiological process but his opponents at the School at Nancy held that hypnosis was a matter of suggestion. Binet became a defender of Charcot’s position.

In a related matter, Binet, under the auspices of Charcot, studied the healing powers of magnetism. Working with several clinical patients with symptoms of pain and distress, Binet found that by moving magnets over their bodies he could move the pain. When the magnets were moved to the end of body and then off, the pain followed and disappeared. The same procedure could be used to eliminate fears. Unfortunately, Binet’s findings couldn’t be replicated. Patients who knew what Binet expected to happen responded the magnet therapy. Patients who didn’t know what to expect showed no improvement nor could their pain be moved around in their bodies. In 1890, Binet had to admit that his results were due to suggestion and poor experimental design; he resigned in shame.

Using his time wisely, Binet read widely, began a longitudinal study of how well his two daughters remembered and learned (which he published in 1903), and joined (at his own expense) the physiological laboratory at the Sorbonne. He studied childhood fears, introspection, graphology, inkblots, eyewitness testimony, memory, and how to measure the unique individual differences in people. In 1895, he became director of the lab, founded the first psychology journal in France, and opened a clinic for discovering new techniques for teaching children. The following year, Binet and Victor Henri published “Individual Psychology,” which listed a number of variables and how to measure them.

In 1899, three things happened: Theodore Simon (who worked with mentally retarded children) asked him to be his doctoral supervisor, a grad student at Cornell criticized the Binet-Henri tests for having low correlations between the tests, and Binet joined the Free Society for the Psychological Study of the Child. Binet and Simon began working on ways to measure intelligence and help children learn better. It was an area that had interested Binet for a long time. The tests and puzzles he had devised to study his own children had worked well for tracking mental development but would have to be bundled into a more cohesive collection to be of general use.

At the start of the 20th century, France passed a series of laws requiring all of its children be educated. In 1903, Binet was appointed to a commission charged with advising the government on what to do with “subnormal” children. Although Galton’s tests could be used to evaluate some children, those who were blind or deaf could falsely be labeled as retarded. The following year Binet and Simon created a series of tests designed to distinguish between normal and retarded children aged 2 to 12. They used a trial and error approach; Working with a sample of approximately 50 each category. the children were given many types of items.

In 1905, the Binet-Simon test of intelligence was published. It was normalized on a sample of subjects and was composed of a 30-step hierarchy of tests, ranging from visual coordination and grasping of a cube to more difficult items such as folding-cutting paper and distinguishing between abstract terms. Given in order of difficulty, the test items were used to distinguish between retarded and normal children, not between different levels of normal intelligence. Testing was done by a trained person and given to one student at a time.

The 1908 revision of the Binet-Simon scale, had almost twice as many tests (58) and was normalized on large samples. Based on the assumption that intelligence increases with age, each test level had a passing score of 75% or better. The 1908 Binet-Simon test was very popular and was translated into several languages. Henry Goddard (who coined the term “moron”) translated the test into English and brought it to America. When William Stern coined the terms “mental age” and “intelligence quotient,” Binet didn’t like them. He thought they were to restrictive but the names captured the public’s fancy and stuck. Consequently, those scoring low on the test were not “abnormal” but younger in mental age (retarded). In 1916 Lewis Terman refined the idea more and coined the term “IQ.” By the beginning of WWI, the Binet-Simon test of intelligence was a world-wide phenomena.

Binet’s concept of mental orthopedics never caught on as well as his test. He believed that everyone can learn and that intelligence can be increased by exercises in attention, will and discipline. Heredity may set the upper limit of intelligence but training can improve the scores for those at the lower levels.

British Psychology

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