Photo by Nathan Fertig on Unsplash
About the time the Old West was being settled, Sigmund Freud was exploring the frontier of mental health. His techniques, assumptions and theories had great impact on counseling and clinical psychology.
There is great diversity in approaches to mental health but all forms of counseling ultimately owe their own foundation to the work of Sigmund Freud. Unlike most other theorists, he was not associated with a university, nor was his system based on experimental evidence. Although Freud performed some experimental research early in his career, it had no real relevance to his later theory. Indeed, Freud’s theory had more to do with behavioral deviation than with general principles of behavior.
Based in medicine and neurology, he revolted against the traditional German psychiatrists (e.g., Kraepelin) and their insistence on physiological causes for behavioral disorders. As his theory developed, Freud’s explanations became more psychological and less medical.
Sigmund Freud
Spoiled Child
Born May 6, 1856 in Freiburg, Austria (now Pribor, Czechoslovakia), Sigmund Freud was the eldest child of his father’s second family. His father had two grown sons from a previous marriage, and Sigmund was the first of 8 more. Although his father was a poor wool merchant, every effort was made to give Sigmund every advantage possible. While the rest of the family used candles for light, he was given an oil lamp (better for reading).
He graduated from the Sperl Gymnasium in 1873, considered studying law or physiology but eventually settled on medicine. In 1873, Sigmund entered the University of Vienna and studied with noted physiologist Ernest Brucke (a disciple of Hermann von Helmholtz).. Under Bruche’s direction, Freud published articles on anatomy, physiology and neurology. He wanted an academic appointment as a biologist-physiologist but Jews were “discouraged” from academic and governmental positions but allowed in law and medicine. In 1881, Freud graduated from the University of Vienna.
Breuer
Shortly before obtaining his medical degree, Freud was befriended by Joseph Breuer, a respected, successful, and sophisticated physician in Vienna. In 1889, Breuer had treated Bertha Pappenheim (referred to as Anna O in his writings). Breuer could find no physiological cause for her symptoms, which included arm and leg paralysis, blurred vision, and confusion, but he found that his patient seemed to improve just from talking about her problems while under hypnosis. Although the symptom set changed, the treatments (which the girl called “chimney sweeping” or “the talking cure”) appeared to be effective in helping her deal with emotionally-charged events from her past.
In 1891, 2 years after the fact, Freud and Breuer discussed the case at great length. Together, they pondered the significance of this breakthrough technique, and included her case in a book which they co-wrote. Published in 1895, Studies in Hysteria marked both the end of their friendship and the founding of psychoanalysis.
Charcot
During his association with Breuer, and not too long after graduating from medical school, Freud went to Paris to study with Charcot. In 1885, Charcot was the leading neurologist in France, and the source, according to Freud, of a famous statement. The story goes that in reference to the case of a one patient, Charcot said the cause “in this kind of case, it is always something genital — always, always, always.” Although Charcot denied making the statement, it has become part of Freudian folklore.
Upon his return to Vienna, Freud continued to use hypnosis and Breuer’s “talking cure.” But he discovered that with patients who couldn’t be hypnotized that similar results could be found by talking about their early emotional traumas even if not hypnotized.
Freud’s Theory
Freud’s theory is a deterministic system of internal motivation. Borrowing heavily from the terminology of physics and other sciences, Freud proposes a self-contained system of psychical energy. Behavior is a result of conscious and unconscious processes which oppose and counteract each other.
Although responsible for popularizing it, Freud didn’t create the concept of the unconscious mind. Certainly, Leibnitz’s (1646-1716) theory of monads contained the notion of an unconscious but it was Herbart (1776-1841) who fully developed it. Similarly, Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) wrote of the negative influence unconscious ideas could have. He also introduced the basic concept of repression.
Freud proposed that the mind is composed of three structures: the id, ego and superego. The id is Freud’s term for the earliest and most basic component of personality. At birth, a neonate is only an id. Like a spoiled child wanting immediate gratification, the id relies on the pleasure principle. The id operates like a reflex, providing the individual’s psychic energy. The id’s primary process generates an image of the object it desires. Since the id is completely unconscious, it can’t distinguish between images and reality.
As an infant matures, it evolves from an id-centric organism in order to deal with reality. With the addition of an ego, the child can interact with reality and tries to acquire in reality the imaginary images produced in the id (object substitution). The ego operates on the reality principle, and controls both the motor and sensory functions of the body.
As a child learns right from wrong, the ego creates the third mental component. Like the id, the superego cannot distinguish imagined from real, and consequently punishes you equally for a bad idea as for a bad action. Composed of the conscience (what you should not do) and the ego ideal (what you should do), the superego is in direct opposition to the id (what you want to do). The conflict produced by the fighting of the id and superego is called anxiety. Human behavior is a function of the ego mediating between the forces of the id and superego.
Summary
Freud has given us a complicated system of force and counter-force. Although the structure of the mind is illustrative and abstract, his model emphasizes the importance of the individual. Freud based his ideas on case histories and not on experimental data. He shows us that good writing and revolutionary theorizing does not depend on the latest computerized laboratory equipment. Freud emphasized the importance of early childhood, the usefulness of dreams, and that we are not always aware of our own motives.
Since Freud’s approach was the first modern theory of personality, psychoanalysis is sometimes called the First Force of psychology (behaviorism is the 2nd and humanism is the 3rd). Since his theory is over 100 years old, Freud’s views sometimes conflict with current research findings. Yet it is surprisingly popular.
Mind Mao
Notes
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Life
- Impacted by Darwin; set out to be a biologist who proved evolution
- Father of psychoanalysis
- Psychosexual stages of development
- Defense mechanisms
- Oedipus complex
- Dream analysis
Joseph Breuer
- Respected, successful, and sophisticated
- Physician in Vienna
- Anna O
- Real name was Bertha Pappenheim
- Patient of Breuer in 1889
- Epiletpic?
- Symptoms improved by talking about her problems while under hypnosis
- Helped her deal with emotionally-charged events from past
- Procedure
- “Chimney sweeping”
- “The talking cure”)
- Freud & Breuer write book together
Wilhelm Fliess
- Emma Eckstein
- February 1895
- Nose surgery
Theory
- Deterministic
- Internal motivation
- Terms from physics
- Self-contained system
- Psychic energy
- Based on case histories
- Good writing
- Behavior caused by opposing forces
- Conscious processes
- Unconscious process
ID
- Most basic component of personality
- Develops the earliest
- Neonate is only an id
- Relies on the pleasure principle
- Operates like a reflex
- Provides psychic energy
- Primary process = makes image of what desires
- Can’t distinguish between images and reality; completely unconscious
EGO
- Controls motor and sensory functions of body
- Allows child to interact with reality
- Reality principle
- Object substitution = Finds objects in reality to satisfy id
SUPEREGO
- Created by ego
- Learning right from wrong
- Can’t tell reality from images (imagined)
- Punishes you for bad idea
- Punishes you for bad action
- Composed of
- Conscience = what you should not do
- Ego ideal = what you should do
- Fights with id = anxiety
Ego balances id and superego
- Ego fights anxiety by keeping impulse out of consciousness
- Freudian slips show what is behind the defenses
- Several techniques = defense mechanisms
Defense Mechanisms
- Denial = don’t admit it’s real
- Displacement = kick the dog, not the wife
- Projection = see my faults in you
- Rationalization = there’s a good reason
- Reaction Formation = act in the opposite
- Repression = don’t think or feel
- Regression = go back to when it was safe
- Compensation = make-up for a deficiency
- Intellectualization = detachment
- Sublimation = redirect undesirable impulses (most constructive approach)
5 Psychosocial Stages
- Fixation
- Too much libido tied to a particular stage
- Too much or too little gratification
- 1. Oral Stage
- Healthy
- Writers, artists and entertainers who use fantasy creatively
- Too little gratification
- Dependence
- Tends to withdraw into fantasy
- Regresses more readily
- Too much gratification
- Hostility and biting sarcasm
- Healthy
- 2. Anal Stage
- Harsh toilet training
- Excessively orderly or compulsive individuals
- Compulsive behavior to control impulses
- Counting, cleaning and checking
- Obsessive = repetitive thoughts to control guilt and anxiety.
- 3. Phallic Stage
- Fixation
- Hyper-emphasis on competition, sexuality and power
- Physical appearance
- Emphasized to seduce, manipulate and control
- Oedipal Period: Boys
- Sexual desire aimed at mother as main love object
- Fears father
- Castration anxiety
- Electra Period: Girls
- Sexual desire aimed at father – male genitalia
- Resents mother
- Penis envy
- Fixation
- 4. Latency Stage
- Healthy development
- Tranquil, wholesome home-life
- Without too much emotion or sexuality
- Disturbed latency
- Impulse control problems
- Repressed latency
- Rigid upbringing
- “Out of touch” with feelings
- 5. Genital Stage
- Lust is blended with affection.
- Achievement
- Balance love and work
Goal: observing ego
Ability to look at oneself honestly & make changes
Terms
- anal stage
- Anna O
- anxiety
- Breuer, Joseph
- case histories
- castration anxiety
- chimney-sweeping
- compensation
- compulsive
- conscience
- conscious processes
- defense mechanisms
- denial
- dependence
- displacement
- disturbed latency
- dream analysis
- ego
- ego ideal
- Electra complex
- father of psychoanalysis
- fixation
- Fliess, Wilhelm
- Freudian slips
- genital stage
- gratification
- id
- images
- intellectualization
- latency stage
- libido
- object substitution
- obsessive
- Oedipal complex
- oral stage
- penis envy
- phallic stage
- primary process
- projection
- psychosexual stages of development
- rationalization
- reaction Formation
- reality
- reality principle
- regression
- repressed latency
- repression
- sublimation
- superego
- talking-cure
- unconscious
- unconscious processes
Quiz
Who is the founder of psychoanalysis:
- a. Thorndike
- b. Skinner
- c. Freud
- d. Gall
2. According to Freud, which is the earliest, most basic component of personality:
- a. proprium
- b. superego
- c. ego
- d. id
3. According to Freud, this operates on the reality principle:
- a. conscience
- b. superego
- c. ego
- d. id
4. According to Freud, instincts, memories and psychic forces are:
- a. client-centered
- b. nondirective
- c. unconscious
- d. fictions
5. Freud based his ideas on:
- a. experimental research
- b. correlational studies
- c. case studies
- d. topology
1. Who is the founder of psychoanalysis:
- a. Thorndike
- b. Skinner
- c. Freud
- d. Gall
2. According to Freud, which is the earliest, most basic component of personality:
- a. proprium
- b. superego
- c. ego
- d. id
3. According to Freud, this operates on the reality principle:
- a. conscience
- b. superego
- c. ego
- d. id
4. According to Freud, instincts, memories and psychic forces are:
- a. client-centered
- b. nondirective
- c. unconscious
- d. fictions
5. Freud based his ideas on:
- a. experimental research
- b. correlational studies
- c. case studies
- d. topology
Summary
