Definitions That Make Sense To Me

A

a priori

A Medieval Latin phrase: â (from) + priorì (former); from theory, not experience.

ABC theory of personality

Albert Ellis proposed personality is a series of interactions: activating event, belief, and consequence.

ablation

killing cells or area of cells; used in basic research and to treat abnormal neural activity (heart arrhythmia, epileptic seizures, Parkinson’s tremors)

absolute refractory period

The amount of time a neuron needs to recover enough to fire in response to a large stimulus; absolute minimum, about 1 mercy.

abstract intelligence

The ability to reason using ideas; in contrast to concrete intelligence, which need to see objects to make decisions about them.

abstract reasoning

The process of manipulating ideas.

abstract thought

The mental representation of intangible concepts like freedom and love.

abstraction

The process of selecting sensory information, combining it with prior knowledge, and making mental representations.

accessibility

Knowing you can find needed information in your memory system. In contrast to availability, knowing it is in there somewhere. Your rake may be available in your yard shed but not accessible.

accommodation

For Piaget, the mental process of making new mental categories; occur after assimilation no longer works. We assimilate incoming information into existing categories for as long as we can (all animals are cats). But we accommodate when we need categories for live cats, toy cats, cartoon cats, and dogs.

accuracy

Hit what you aim for (validity).

acetylcholine

Neurotransmitter needed to activate muscle movements. Also somewhat used in the brain; impacted by nicotine.

acronym

A mnemonic technique which shortens phrases into a sing word. Regular Day Off becomes RDO. American Biscuit Company becomes ABC. You can’t change the order of the letters.

acrostic

A mnemonic technique that creates a word out of various terms. Letters can be rearranged to find the best word. CANOE and OCEAN use the same letters, either can be used.

act

A behavior. For Guthrie, an act is a collection of movements. Brentano’s “act psychology” rejected the mind as a passive recipient of sensations; emphasized the importance of mental acts. Carr described behavior as an adaptive act (adjusting to needs).

act psychology

A term coined by Brentano to signify that the mind is an active receiver and processor of information. It is not passive.

activating event

In cognitive theory, an activating event triggers a belief which results in an emotion. You hear a noise (activating event). You think it is a burglar (belief). The result is fear (emotion). Or you hear a noise, believe it is your friend who is visiting, and you happily get out the popcorn popper. Want to change an emotion? Change a belief.

active touch

Using touch perception for a purpose. The feel in your pocket and decide if it is a key, a coin, or a piece of paper. Touch receptors that report shape, texture and sustained pressure help in your search.

actor-observer error

A cognitive bias of attribution. It is the tendency to attribute your misbehavior (actor) on external factors but attribute the same behavior of others (observer) to internal flaws. You had to cut across three lanes of traffic because you are late; other people who cross three lanes of traffic are rude.

actual self

Carl Rogers proposed self in composed of the real self (actual self) and the ideal self (aspirational self). Many psychodynamic theorists also differentiate between who you are and who you want to be.

acute stress

The first 30 days following a traumatic event can include symptoms of anxiety, sleeplessness and helplessness. If the symptoms continue beyond 30 days, it becomes chronic or extended stress. PTSD is a chronic stress disorder.

adaptive act

Any behavior that changes in response to environment shifts. It does not include reflexes.

adjustment disorders

Short term symptoms caused by common life changes that take some getting used to. Death of a friend, spouse, pet; loss of a job; retirement; chronic illness.

aerial perspective

Overview of life or a problem, as if in a plane.

affect

The emotional part of personality.

affective

Sensory nerves carry information to the brain. In contrast to effective nerves that carry instructions away from the brain.

afferent

Toward the brain

affinity

Ability to bind a receptor

agape

The Greek word for meaningful6, spiritual love (as in love of God or country).

aggression-frustration hypothesis

Dollard & Miller proposed that aggression is the result of frustration. Blocking the path in a maze results in climbing and biting behavior.

agnosia

As a result of brain damage, inability to recognize objects. Depending on which part of the brain is impacted, taste agnosia, tough agnosia, visual agnosia and face agnosia.

agonist

Mimics or increases effect of neurotransmitter.

ah-ha phenomenon

Insight; the sudden clarity of a concept or situation.

aim

For Freud, instincts are trying to fill a need aim); behavior is directional.

alcohol

A toxin sometimes consumed by humans on purpose. It increases GABA, lowers inhibition, and disrupts sleep. Leaves the body at a steady rate as the body processes it in two stages. Can’t speed up the process. If addicted to it, get professional help; alcohol withdrawal can kill you.

algorithms

Formulaic approach to a problem; following the equation or pattern will always find correct answer; slow process. Search for book in library by starting at the left and checking every volume. In contrast to heuristics.

all-or-none law

A neuron can fire or not but there is no partial discharge. It is a switch.

Alzheimer’s disease

In 1909, Alois Alzheimer published the case study on the disease bearing his name. Adhering to the belief at the time that old age caused dementia, he differentiated this disease as being pre-senile dementia. Alzheimer’s disease is the progressive loss of brain tissue from unknown causes. It occurs more often in women, and is mostly uninhabited.

amine

Nitrogen compounds; ammonia derivatives.

Amnesia

Loss of memory. Infantile amnesia (can’t remember anything before age 2-3) is because the brain hasn’t created places to store memories. Anterograde amnesia (can’t form new memories), also called classic amnesia, is caused by bilateral damage to the hippocampus. Retrograde amnesia (can’t remember what happened just before the crash) is caused by damage to one of the hippocampi.

amphetamines

Also called uppers. Drugs which increase brain activity by increasing the availability of glutamate, dopamine and norepinephrine. Similar structure to dopamine, inhibit reuptake reverse transporter. Highly addictive. Compared to cocaine, methamphetamine is cheap, longer lasting and gives a larger euphoric rush. If you’re trying to destroy your life with drugs, this is the one to use.

amplification

Adler’s technique to elicit unconscious emotional content. The same cue is used repeatedly until a breakthrough occurs. Any word association cue will work. Cold, hot; cold, winter; cold, ice cream; cold, a mothers love.

amygdala

Bilateral structures (one on each side of the head) that sit at the end of the caudal tail. Involved in processing emotions, particularly fear.

analogical transfer

Conceptual transfer. Transfer of knowledge from one setting to another even though the characteristics are different.

analogies

A comparison or association. Includes metaphors and similes.

anger

A basic emotion, not generated by combining other emotions. Negative expression of discontent. Needs prefrontal cortex regulation to keep its expression controlled.

anima

Jung maintains that there is a feminine side of men (anima) and a masculine side of women (anius). It is our bisexual ability to understand the opposite sex.

animus

For Jung, the masculine side of females.

anal stage

For Freud, this is a normal stage of development at age 2 1/2. If fixated at this stage, a person is either explusive (has no verbal control) or retentive (won’t let anything out).

animal maze

A box with dividers in it, used to study animal behavior; invested in 1901 by Willard S. Small.

antagonist

Blocks or decreases from the effect.

antecedent condition

In classical and operant conditioning, the situation before a stimulus occurs.

anterior cingulated cortex

Wraps around the front of the corpus callosum. Involved in attention allocation, decision making and anticipation of rewards.

anterograde amnesia

Disruption of recall of prior events. Can’t remember what happened just before the car crash. Returns from oldest to newest memories.

anthropomorphism

Attributing human characteristics (e.g., motivation, thinking, etc.) to animals.

anti-social

Against society. A lobe; often given to normal behavior of minority children. Usually means you got in trouble with the law.

anxiety

A feeling of uncertainty and uneasiness. For Freud, anxiety is the result of conflict between the id and the superego.

anxiety aphasia

Anxiety can be a symptom of aphasia’s early stages but it is not the cause. Being tongue-tied is the closest connection of anxiety and difficulty using language.

anxiety disorders

Group of disorders which includes phobias, generalized anxiety, social anxiety and PTSD. Most common reason for going to counseling.

aphasia

Neurological problem that cause a disruption or impairment of language. Issues are either in the production of speech (Brock’s aphasia) or the understanding of language (Wernicke’s aphasia).

apperception

Active perception; conscious thought. For Herbart, apperception is a readiness for new perceptual experience. For Wundt, it is an act of volition.

apperceptive mass

According to Herbart, ideas could be at varying levels of consciousness, but actively conscious ideas are attracted to each other and form a mass of perceived ideas. For Wundt, the apperceptive mass is the totality of all perception compounds and components.

apprehension

The ability to think and use memory; seizing or capturing perceptions or knowledge. The “span of apprehension” is the number of items one is able to hold in memory at one time, and was studied by James McKeen Cattell.

approach gradient

For Dillard & Miller, the closer you get to something you like the better you like it. The angle of the gradient line differs between rewards.

approach-approach conflict

For Dollard & Miller, a choice between two things you like. Tend to choose the closest or most convenient.

approach-avoidance conflict

For Dollard & Miller, a situation which has positive and negative elements. It’s the restaurant you like but it is farcaway.

apraxia

The loss of speech and the ability to comprehend it, due to brain injury or disease. From the Greek “aphatos:” speechless.

archetypes

A prototype, pattern or stamp from which influence later items; quintessence. For Jung, universal thought forms, including the concepts of Mother, hero, devil, magic, God, and wise old man.

Army Alpha & Beta

The first large scale tests of ability; used by the US Army in WWI to assign people to jobs.

ascending auditory pathway

The nerve path from ear to the temporal lobe, with stops along the way.

associated reflex

Similar to Pavlov’s conditioned reflex, coined by Vladimire Bechterev.

association

The hypothetical bond between stimulus and response. Although the term was used as an explanation of learning by Aristotle, Wundt and Watson, there is no agreement on its precise definition or its relative importance.

atoms

The smallest building block of a system; irreducible, indestructible; from the Greek.

ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

Controls glutamate transport levels.

attention

To heed, focus thought or concentrate. According to Titchener there are 3 general stages of attention: involuntary (response to sudden noise), secondary (voluntary attention), and derived (habituation).

attenuation reflex

When the brain senses a loud noise is coming, this reflex triggers the muscles in the middle ear to clamp down on the tiny bones to prevent damage.

attitudinal values

For Frankl, there are three ways to find meaning in life: creative, experiential and attitudinal. Creative values are the result of creativity. Experiential values are the result of experiencing an event or interaction with another person. Attitudinal vale’s are the product of facing unavailable suffering.

attraction

Interest, pleasure or liking of another person.

attraction factors

Factors which impact attraction, including proximity, similarity, and matching hypothesis.

attribution effect

The outcome of making biased attributions. We tend to blame the lateness of others on laziness but our lateness on external factors. Also called the fundamental attrition error.

autobiographical memory

Episodic memory, part of declarative memory.

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Nervous system which controls heart, breathing and other generally unconscious functions. Divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.

autonomy vs shame-doubt: will

Erikson’s second stage of development. It is a challenge between autonomy and shame (and doubt). Successful completion of this stage results in the virtue of will.

availability

Knowing you have stored needed information somewhere in your memory system. In contrast to accessibility, being able to reach it quickly. Your rake may be available in your yard shed but not accessible

avoid or reduce

A strategy to make learning easier. Avoid taking on a task if possible or at least make it as small as possible.

avoidance gradient

For Dollard & Miller, the closer you are to something you don’t like the more you want to avoid it. The avoidance gradient is always steeper than the approach gradient.

avoidance-avoidance conflict

For Dollard & Miller, having to choose between two things you don’t like. A rat in a straight maze with shock at each end tries to stay in the middle of the maze, avoiding both ends. A shuttle box has no empty space in the middle; repeated shock with no escape leads to learned helplessness.

axon

An extension of a neuron which carries a neural impulse away from the soma. When the cascade of depolarizations reaches the end of the axon, the neuron releases its neurotransmitter.

axon hillock

In a large neuron, there is a build up where the soma and anon connect. It is a location of summation.

axon terminal

Also called synaptic boutons, terminal buttons, or end feet. The place where neurons synapse.

 

 

B

B motives

Maslow’s term for growth needs (not biologically imperative).

Babinski’s reflex

An infantile reflex that is overridden by more complex neural activity; reappearance is an indicator of neurological damage. Stroking sole of foot, big toes sticks up, other toes fan out.

backward chaining

Widely used technique for training a string of tasks to dogs and other animals. Also used for people with brain or developmental damage. Last item in the chain is taught first, continuing back until the first task is learned.

backward conditioning

In classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus is presented after unconditioned stimulus. It would be food before bell. Horse trainers use it to speed up drug testing of race horses; when walking by stall, if horse is urinating, make noise. After race, make noise, hope horse will urinate.

behavioral research

Change behavior, observe brain.

Barnum effect

Also called the Forer effect. People rate horoscope-like descriptions of themselves as highly accurate, if the descriptions are somewhat vague, mostly positive and delivered by an authority figure.

barriers

For Lewin, barriers are obstructed goals.

basic anxiety

Horney’s term for the feeling helpless caused by culturalization. Basic anxiety produces a drive for safety (security).

becoming

For existentialists, personal growth is a continuous process of becoming, not become.

behavior

Anything you do externally.

behavior modification

Based on Skinner’s operant conditioning, a group of techniques to change behavior, including using learning contracts, reward charts, and token economies.

behavior potential

The likelihood of a behavior occurring. For Rotter, behavior potential is a function of reward size and certainty of getting a reward.

behaviorism

School of psychology founded on the work of Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner.

belief system

In cognitive therapy, your collection of beliefs about yourself, others, and the world.

beliefs

Beliefs are personal opinions which we accept as being true. A belief can be shared by an entire group or be the sole possession of one person. As opinions, beliefs often are untestable statements of faith.

bell-shaped curve

Normal curve, frequency distribution. Symmetrical.

Bell-Magendie law

Nerves are one-way transmitters of information.

Betz cells

Some of the largest neurons in the brain; go from motor cortex to spinal cord. A type of pyramidal cell.

bilateral

Both sides.

binocular cues

Depth cues requiring both eyes; primarily the discrepancy between left- and right-eye images. Most depth cues are monocular.

bipolar

Literally, two poles. Bipolar neurons have two extensions; for example in the visual system, one receiving input from horizontal cells, the other sending info to ganglion cells.

birth order

Alder proposed the position in a nuclear family helps determine personality. These stereotypes may not apply to extended or unconventional families.

bits (chunks)

A mnemonic technique which divides material into smaller segments. It is an extension of how our visual system processes information.

bitter

An acidic taste detected on the tongue.

bizarre images

Some say imagining bizarre images make things easier to remember but it is not the bizarreness, it is the interaction between items. Bizarre images are usually interactive.

blastula

A hollow ball of 32 cells; an early stage of embryo development.

blocking

Memory is improved by combining like elements together. News shows put all traffic items, all weather stories, etc.

bonds

The hypothetical connection between stimulus and response, variously defined by associationists, behaviorists and others.

boundaries

For Lewin, the separation of life space into regions is marked by boundaries which vary in strength.

bottom-up processing

Collecting sensations into integrated perceptions. In contrast to top-down processing.

Bowman’s glands

Olfactory glands; make nasal secretions.

brain

The biological structure at the end of the spinal cord, and the hypothesized source of mental activity

brightness contrast

In perception, an object’s perceived brightness is impacted by its contrast to the background. A gray shape on white looks brighter than when that same shape

Broca’s area

The speech production center of the brain, discovered by Paul Broca.

Brooks matrix

A task which demonstrates the limits of short term memory. A 4-panel cartoon-like matrix composed of graphic image and a set of numbers. Ss can remember information for awhile but the ability to recall images or number sets disappears rapidly. As we walk down the street, we scan and remember faces for a short amount of time, but we move on to new faces and forget the previous ones.

bystander effect

The people present, the less helpful they are to a person in need. Personal responsibility is thought to be distributed among group members, lowering the likelihood for individual action.

 

 

C 

caffeine tremors

Overdosing on caffeine and withdrawal from it can both cause tremors. Taking too much caffeine can cause atrial fibrillation and fast heart rate. These results are not always clear to the individual. Withdrawal from caffeine can cause tremors, usually in the hands. If your hands shake before your morning cup of coffee, you are likely showing withdrawal symptoms, meaning you’re drinking too much coffee. The safest dose of coffee is one regular cup once a week.

calcium

ions fuses synaptic vesicle and presynaptic membranes

cardinal trait

For Allport, a cardinal trait is a primary characteristic that dominates your life. Not everyone has a cardinal trait but for some people they are dedicated to exploring, teaching, charity, comedy, taking advantage of others, evil, etc.

castration anxiety

According to Freud, young boys fear being castrated by their fathers for having sexual thoughts. Boys avoid this conflict by indentifying with their fathers and trying to be like them.

CAT scan

Computed axial tomography (CAT), often just CT, is a series of x-rays processed by a computer into a composite image. Tomographic images are cross-sectional slices, as opposed to topographic images which show hills and valleys on a map.

catastrophism

The belief that Earth was formed by sudden, violent changes. From the Greek “katastrophe:” ruin, turn over.

catalyst

helps start reactions, isn’t used up by reaction

categorical imperative

An absolute moral law. Kant suggests that we have an innate (categorical) understanding of what we should do (imperative). He notes: “Act as if the maxim from which you act were to become through your will a universal law.”

categorization

As we grow, we learn to sort objects, images, people and ideas into categories based on similarities. This developmental skill allows us to structure sensory information and reduces cognitive load.

category search model

In contrast to serial search (start at the beginning of a list and test every word against the target word), a category search jumps from category to category (faster but not always finding the right answer). If the target word is bird, we don’t search alphabetically through all the birds we know. We jump to the most common in our local reality or literature. Robin is the most common response; it occurs in lots of books. Shoebill and stork take much longer to find.

caudal

Toward the tail.

causality

The principle of cause and effect; the reason things occur. One of Hume’s 3 laws of association. Relative causality.

CCC (consonant-consonant-consonant)

Used in memory research, lists of nonsense words are often composed of consonant-consonant-consonant (CCC) and consonant-vowel-consonant (CVC) combinations.

central nervous system (CNS)

Composed of brain and spinal cored. Everything else is peripheral.

cerebral hemispheres

The brain has two parts sitting side by side. These cerebral hemispheres work together on almost everything.

chaining

Teaching a series of tasks to be performed in a set sequence. Forward chaining teach them as they are to occur (like learning a song). Backward chaining, which is most effective but less used, teaches them in reverse order.

chance

In research, we believe the results are due to chance until the pattern is significantly different from what chance looks like.

character

The totality of one’s moral and emotional components; personality.

chemical senses

Taste and smell. In contrast to touch, which is mechanical.

Chinese zodiac

An ancient description of personality based on the year, month and day of your birth.

choleric

During the Hellenic Period, Hippocrates described personality by relating it to bodily fluids. A choleric personality was one with a fiery temper, the result of too much yellow bile.

Christianity

The religion founded on the teachings of Jesus.

cilia

Feather or finger-like. Used to describe fibers in cochlea, fallopian tubes, etc.

circadian rhythm

Your sense of day and season, impacted by amount and angle of sunlight. Disruption is cause of jet lag.

classical conditioning

According to Pavlov, learning is a function of preceding an unconditioned stimulus with a conditioned stimulus. Subsequent presentation of the conditioned stimulus will produce a similar response given to the unconditioned response.

cleavage

The division of a zygote into two cells, then four cells, etc.

client-centered therapy

Developed by Carl Rogers, the first popular American psychotherapy.

clustering

An organizing technique to improve encoding. Put items together in little groups, preferably similar items but chunks of dissimilar items work too.

cognitive

An adjective describing thinking, will or intellect; as opposed to conative (emotional).

cocaine

blocks dopamine & norepinephrine transporters

cochlea

Snail-shaped structure of the inner ear where sound is encoded into neural signals.

coding

In research, converting observations and other data into numbers.

cognitive bias

Rules we have which systematically misrepresent information.

cognitive development

Developing the ability to think. Piaget’s theory is a good example of a cognitive development theory.

cognitive dissonance

Festinger showed we change our attitude instead of our behavior when there is a conflict between them.

cognitive maps

Tolman showed we have internal representations of the outside world. We use cognitive maps to find our way hone (when GPS isn’t working). People vary in this ability.

collective unconscious

This is the most important of the unconscious for Jung. Filled with the transpersonal, ancestral past, the collective unconscious is shared by all mankind. It is part of the prehuman nature and the foundation for one’s personality structure. Although Jungis unclear on how it is passed down, the collective unconscious contains the predispositions of loving one’s mother, knowing God exists, and the fear of snakes. Racial memories are not inherited, but somehow brain traces (predispositions to act in selective way) are passed along.

color blindness

Not being able to see colors as others do. Red-green color blindness is the most common type; caused by developmental problems in ganglion cells.

color perception

The ability to perceive color, varies between species.

common sense

In current usage, good judgment. As used by Aristotle, the sense which coordinates the other senses (smell, sight, etc.).

coma

An altered state of consciousness where the person is alive but unconscious for an extended period of time. Seem unable to think but have normal sleep and reflexes. Likelihood of recovery depends on cause.

common sense theory of emotion

I see a bear, feel afraid, therefore I run.

common trait

For Allport, traits all people have to varying degrees. Can be combined into more complex patterns.

comparative-evolutionary psychology

comparing human brains to other species

compensation

According to Adler, much of life is spent offsetting one’s feelings of inferiority.

complex

A composite of elements; an intricate, interwoven pattern. For Jung, personality segments are composed of varying clusters of emotions and attitudes. Forming around a nucleus of emotionally charge energy, ideas attract similarly charged ideas. The type of complex (e.g., inferiority complex, mother complex, power complex, etc.) can be identified by using word association tests.

complete memory

For Ebbinghaus, learning a list until you remember all the items.

compounds

Mixtures. For Wundt, compounds are clusters of sensations. They are connected by association, much as in John Stuart Mill’s mental chemistry. According to Wundt, an idea is a compound of one sensation and one feeling; emotions are composed of multiple feelings.

COMT (catechol-o-methyltransferase)

Enzyme that breaks down dopamine in synapse.

conative

According to McDougall, it is the goal seeking, desiring aspect of personality.

concrete operations

According to Piaget, the ability to perform abstract thinking (formal operations) is preceded by a stage of reasoning (ages 7-12) which is limited to classifying objects, manipulating numbers; conservation is acquired during this period but those at this stage of development are unable to discuss hypothetical situations.

concrete operational stage

Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development. Can think as long as objects are present. Can add blocks, count with buttons.

conditioned response

According to Pavlov, the response to a stimulus which has been previously paired with a stimulus which evokes a response; the conditioned response is similar to the unconditioned response but is lower in magnitude.

conditioned stimulus

According to Pavlov, when a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus which evokes a response, the previously neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus) evokes a similar but weaker response.

cones

Visual receptors which respond to three bands of light, depending on its protein. Cone-shaped and filled with folded photosensitive material.

confabulation

When there are gaps in our knowledge, we make up a story of what happened, based on our best estimates.

confirmation bias

Our tendency to search for evidence to support our views, and ignore opposing evidence.

confirmation vs falsification

It is good for science to look for confirmation of a theory but it is better to try to disprove a theory. There is no cognitive bias in falsification.

conflict

A fight or battle between opposing forces, needs or desires. For Freud, conflict can be unconscious. For Lewin (and later, Dollard and Miller’s studies), approach-approach conflicts are between two desireable choices; approach-avoidance conflicts are the result of an option which is both desireable and undesireable; avoidance-avoidance is the choice between to undesireable states.

conformity

Our tendency to change our attitudes and behaviors to match those of a group.

congruence

Consistency on attitude and behavior

conscience

From Latin “conscient:” con (joint, with), scire (know); to be aware of. To be aware of moral laws. For Freud, the conscience is the part of the superego which tells the ego what not to do. What you think you should do.

conscious

Being aware of one’s surroundings, thoughts and choices.

conservation

For Piaget, conservation is the ability to judge quantity regardless of shape (e.g., narrow tall glass holds same as short wide glass).

consolidation

A process of the hippocampus which simplifies patterns and moves items from working memory to long term memory.

constructs

Used as theoretical building blocks to form theories, constructs are ideas. By systematically arranging ideas, a complex pattern of concepts can be developed. This pattern (theory), though often untestable, relates observable and abstract elements together in interesting ways.

contiguity

A series of adjacent elements; connected by time, placement or relationship. One of Aristotle’s laws of association (similarity, contiguity and opposites). One of Hume’s 3 laws of association (contiguity, resemblance and causality).

continuity

A Gestalt principle used to organize perceptions (things close to each other); for Erickson, the continuity of past, present and future is an important consideration.

continuous reinforcement

A reward is given every time a behavior occurs.

contralateral

Opposite side.

correlation

A necessary but not sufficent component of cause-effect. Originally proposed by Galton as co-relation and displayed in a scatterplot; later Pearson, Spearman and others developed statistical computations for describing monotonic and linear relationship. Values can range from +1 to -1. The sign indicates direction (+ = both variable moving same direction); magnitude indicates strngth of relationship.

correlational

research without randomly assigning subjects to treatment conditions; used when random assignment is unavailable or unethical

corpus collosum

Largest connection between cerebral hemispheres.

counseling

Therapy that is less extreme than clinical psychology.

cosmology

The study of the universe (cosmos).

cranial nerves

Twelve pairs of nerves which serve the face, neck, snell, taste, etc.

cranioscopy

Also called phrenology.

creative synthesis

For Wundt, the mind is an active process which creates new ideas by combining older ones.

creativity

A mental process involving finding connections between various content areas.

cross-sectional

study people from different age groups at same time

cryptomnesia

Accidental plagiarism. A result of our not tracking well where our information comes from.

crystallins

cue

For Dollard & Miller, the start of the drive-cue-response-consequence.

CVC

Short for consonant-vowel-consonant; nonesense words used to test memory by Ebbinghaus.

 

D

D motives

According to Maslow, D motives represent deficiencies which must be met before other needs.

dasein

According to Rollo May, dasein is the need to be in the world.

death instincts

According to Freud, death is the goal of life; return to stability.

decay theory of forgetting

deductive reasoning

Reasoning from general rules to specific instances. This method was favored by Descartes, Galileo, and Hobbes.

defense mechanisms

A group of mostly unconscious acts designed to fend off anxiety, according to Freud.

degradation

break up of neurotransmitter in synapse

deja vu

A temporary memory error resulting in the feeling we have been some place before. Quite common.

deliberate learning

Learning which targets specific tasks or components. Pianists might deliberately focus on pedal actions, as opposed to playing the whole piece.

delusions

False beliefs, can be quite long lasting. One of positive symptoms of schizophrenia.

dementia

Loss of mental functioning. Alzheimer’s disease is the most common type.

dendrite

Bulges or tree-like structures that protrude off the soma of a neuron. Place where neurotransmitters impact the neuron.

denial

One of Freud’s defense mechanisms. Refusing to admit the truth.

dependency

Psychological need for drug or substance

dependent variable

what an experimenter observes; it depends on what the subjects do

depolarization

Change of polarity, typically negatively charged neurons suddenly becoming positively charged.

depression

Unhappiness, including sadness, anger and irritation. Can be short term situational or long term clinical.

derived attention

According to Titchener, the habit of attending to a stimulus produces derived attention. In contrast to voluntary attention, derived attention requires less mental effort.

desensitization

Less responsive to a stimulus.

developmental

Research that focuses on growth or the changes across the life span; can be longitudinal or cross-sectional).

dexter

Right.

diffusion

Particles move from high concentration to low concentration areas.

diffusion of responsibility

Explanation given for the bystander effect. Responsibility is spread over the crowd, so no one helps a person in need.

dilution

Solution is less concentrated (add more water, mix with something else).

discovery learning

Learning by doing; exploring on your own.

discrimination

In behaviorism, the ability to detect differences between stimuli.

displacement

The healthiest of Freud’s defense mechanisms; kick dog, not boss.

dispersion

Move from central point (ripple in water).

dissection

Careful and purposeful division of a body or plant to see internal structure.

distal

Away from center (peripheral).

distillation

Heat liquid to separate mixture (evaporate as different rates).

distributed practice

Spread practice over time. Not massed practice.

disturbed thinking

A positive symptom of schizophrenia.

don’t-forget strategy

Keeping things in memory is easier than learning or re-learning material

dopamine

Neurotransmitter which signals reward and importance. Involved in addiction.

dorsal

Toward the backbone; dorsal fin.

double approach-avoidance conflict

For Dollard & Miller, the choice between two things, each with rewards and punishments.

Dr. Zilstein experiment

An identity used by Stanley Schachter when researching anxiety. Have the subjects were told the electric shock they would receive would hurt a lot. The other half were told it would be mild. The majority of the high stress group members preferred to stay together while waiting. The majority of the low stress group preferred to wait alone.

dream analysis

Psychodynamic technique to reveal unconscious motivations,

dreams

An altered state of consciousness that all mammals do. Long, lucid dreams occur during REM sleep.

drive

For Dollard & Miller, internal state causes cue which triggers a response, followed by a consequence.

drives

Things that push you into action. Primary drives are biological; secondary drives are learned.

drug abuse

Overuse of a drug. Can be countered by taking less. Heavy drinking can be charged to less drinking by will.

drug addiction

Changes in brain chemistry impact the reward system, making stopping extremely unlikely.

dualism

The use of two principles which are thought to be irreducible (e.g., good, bad; mind, matter). In particular, mind and body. Descartes and Locke were dualists.

duration

A length of time; persistence.

dynamic psychology

According to Woodworth, psychology should be S-O-R (stimulus, organism, response) to account for the dynamic interaction of people and their environment.

dynamic stereotype

Pavlov coined the term to describe mental functioning: it is neurologically stable (stereotyped) but responsive to the environment (dynamic).

dynamism

From the Greek “dunamis:” power. Using universal forces or processes to explain the universe. For Sullivan, a dynamism is a unit of interpersonal relationship. It includes any overt behavior or covert mental experience, and is basically a habitual way of acting. According to Sullivan there is a fear dynamism, lust hynamism, intimate dynamism, etc. See Sullivan’s 7-stages of development.

dyssomnia

Sleep disorders.

 

 

E

eating disorders

Any eating activity which severely disrupts your life, including obesity, anorexia and bulimia.

ecstasy (MDMA)

Tablet of MDMA; crystal version is called Molly. About 30 minutes to take effect, lasts 3-6 hours. Increased feedings of energy, empathy and euphoria. Can die from  dehydration. Extended use can cause paranoia, addiction and memory loss.

edge detection

Horizontal cells in retina trigger neighbor cells to not fire, makes edges of stimulus much sharper.

EEG

Electroencephalograms measure brain waves; tracks voltage changes.

effect

In research, a main effect is a variable that is manipulated to see its effect. A significant effect indicates the independent variable impacted the dependent variable. Studies can have multiple effects.

efferent

Toward the muscles.

efficacy

Degree it activates receptor once bound.

ego

The ego is Freud’s second personality component. It is mostly conscious, interacts with the real world, and mediates between the id and the superego.

ego ideal

The ego ideal is the part of the superego which tells the ego what it should do.

ego identity vs role confusion: fidelity

Erikson’s 5th stage of development. It is a battle between knowing who you are and not knowing where you fit in the world. If you succeed, you gain fidelity (consistency).

ego integrity vs despair: wisdom

Erikson’s 8th stage of development. It occurs during old age and continues to death. It is a battle between synthesis and lack of meaningfulness. As you succeed, you gain increasing amounts of wisdom.

eigenwelt

One of Binswanger’s three modes of existence; one’s own world.

elaboration mnemonic

A mnemonic technique to improve encoding by adding more information than needed. To remember EGBDF, you create a sentence Every Good Boy Does Fine, which is longer but easier to recall.

electrophorus

An instrument or apparatus invented by the Italian physicist Assenandro Volta to produce a charge of static electricity.

Elextra complex

Freud’s name for the Oedipus complex for girls (i.e., discover they have no penis, acquire penis envy).

elicited response

Classical conditioning presents a stimulus to elicit a response; it draws a response out of you without your agreement. In contrast, operant conditioning occurs only after a behavior occurs.

emblems

Nonverbal communication by gestures: thumbs up, fingers signally come here, etc.

embryonic period

From 3rd to 8th week of pregnancy.

emotional consequence

In cognitive therapy, situational cues trigger beliefs which give rise to emotional consequences.

emotional development

Primarily developing the ability to control one’s own emotions, and accurately identify emotions in others.

emotions

Strong experiences cued situation cues, mediated by threat assessment and cognitive processing.

emotional core

According to McDougall, the center of a personality is stable and unlearned.

empiricism

The belief that knowledge comes from experience. In science, the use of empirical methods (testing ideas by trying them out).

encoding

Putting things into memory; in many ways the most important part of memory.

encoding specificity principle

Practicing under the exact conditions you need to perform is best. If performance must occur in several settings, practice in each.

Endoplasmic reticulum

Tube system within neuron, supports axon, Carrie’s nutrients one direction, waste the other.

enzyme

Molecule that speeds up reaction (catalyst).

epilepsy

A fairly common neurological disorder (1 in 25) where the brain misfires causing seizures. Various types have various causes, some unknown.

episodic memory

Autobiographical memory, stories about your experiences, what you did last summer. Part of declarative memory.

equilibrium

Balance or steady state.

equipotentiality

According to Lashley, each part of the brain is equally important.

eros

From Greek mythology, the god of love (sexual love). For Rollo May, the need to unite with others.

every day memory

Knowing which trees bloom first, which subway lines are fastest, which food to order in the cafeteria on Tuesdays. Practical knowledge.

evolution

The development from one stage to another. The belief that life is becoming more complex.

existentialism

An extension of humanism and Gestalt theory. Living in the here and now; discovering your meaning in life.

experimental ethics

Watson’s term for a rehab program for prison inmates.

experimental neurosis

According to Pavlov, requiring too fine of distinction caused his dogs to bark and be unmanageable.

exploding head syndrome

No actual explosions. Sudden perception of loud sounds in head when going into or out of sleep. Temporary, intermittent, no cause known.

explusive

One type of response to being fixated at the anal stage of development, according to Freud.

extinction

The reduction and elimination of a behavior as a natural consequence of removing its reinforcer.

extripation

The systematic surgical removal of portions of the brain. Used to determine the function of specific brain parts (e.g., what can’t the animal do if a particular part of the brain is removed).

 

 

F

face recognition

People are very good at recognizing upright faces. We have a specialized area at the bottom of the temporal lobe which processes faces and categorical information. The left fusiform gyrus tells you if it is face-like (man in the moon, rock formations, toast that looks like Jesus, etc.). The right fusiform gyrus tells you if it is an actual face.

facts

Small elements of knowledge that are remembered best if they are organized or combined together. One of three things you can  learn.

fallopian tubes

Pencil-thick uterine tubes than extend from the uterus to, but not touching, the ovaries. One on each side. Fertilization occurs in the fallopian.

false memories

If we look at a manufactured photo enough times, we can believe we were actually there. We remember much of our childhood from the photos and videos we’ve repeatedly seen, not from our actual experiences.

falsification

To avoid cognitive bias, science tries to disprove a hypothesis, not prove it.

fatigue

According to Guthrie, one way to break bonds of association is to present a stimuolus so often that response is impossible.

fear

A basic emotion, not a combination of other emotions. Processed by the amygdala, allows quick response to threats.

feature comparison model

Semantic memory is thought to search for items by comparing the features of a target word (e.g., robin) to the mental categories present. Searches are faster if the target is positive, is in a small category (birds, not animals or living things), and common (robin, not stork).

feedback

According to Thorndike, learning is best as practice with feedback (knowledge of effect).

fencing reflex

Tonic neck reflex. An infantile reflex, disappears at about seven months. Baby lying on back, turns head to the side, arm on that side extends out, arm behind head is bent upward. Looks like archer or fencer.

fertilization

Combination of DNA from sperm and egg. Takes 24 hours.

fiction

For Skinner, anything you can’t measure is a fiction; love, free will, mental processes.

fictional finalism

Adler believed people are more motivated by the future than the past. We act as if we knew what is going to happen in the future or after death but this finalism (how things will turn out) is a fiction. We don’t know what life, or death, will bring.

field theory

Lewin’s description of interpersonal relationship.

figure & ground

Gestalt description of our perceptual tendency to see an object or the background but not both. We can switch between faces and vases but can’t perceive both at once.

filiform

Thread-like. The papilla on the tongue, for example.

fimbria

Finger-like projections which sweep an ovum into the fallopian tube.

fissures

Large grooves in the brain.

fixation

Attachment or preoccupation with a particular stage of psychosexual development.

fixed interval

Reinforcement given at set periods of time (e.g., every 3 minutes).

fixed ratio

Reinforcement given as consequence of set number of responses (e.g., every 10th lever push).

flavor

The combination of taste and smell, and sometimes texture.

forebrain

Front-most bulge on primal streak and developing brain of an embryo. Will become cerebrum and thalamic system. Also called the prosencephalon.

forgetting

Failure to recall previously learned information; first experimentally investigated by Ebbinghaus.

forgetting curve

Ebbinhaus’ description of how quickly we forget verbal information. Recall drops off rapidly in first two hours.

form

A characteristic of an object; its essence. To arrange in a pattern; a prototype.

forward chaining

Typical way of learning serial material: start at beginning and continue to the end. But songs, poems and long passages are best learned by backward chaining.

formal operational stage

Piaget’s last stage of cognitive development. In late childhood, we learn to manipulate ideas and solve problems in our heads.

formal operations

The last of Piaget’s four stages of development. At age 12 and beyond, the use of hypothetical cases and systematic solution searches are achieved.

frame

A small bit of information in Skinner’s programmed learning approach; in Gestalt theory, a point of view (frame of reference).

framing

How we pose or frame a problem or situation. Is the glass half full or half empty; impacts our emotions.

free recall

Remembering a list in any order you wish.

Freudian slips

A psychodynamic idea that misstatements are revelations of underlying truths.

frontal lobes

Part of brain closest to front of head. Controls voluntary movements, thinking and decision making. Because of location, easily damaged.

functional analysis

Skinner’s technique for evaluating a situation disregarding intention; only look at how behaviors function.

functional fixedness

Tendency to think objects have only one function. Think of cup for drinking water but not as aid in drawing a circle.

functionalism

Inspired by William James, this “school” of psychology emphasized mental processes and functions. In contrast to the Structuralists (like Titchener), the mind was not considered to be composed of static elements of consciousness. The mind was capable of adjusting to the environment. The functionalists used introspection but did not require trained professionals and did not limit themselves to the technique.

fundamental attribution error

Cognitive bias where we attribute the behavior of others to fundamental character traits (lazy, stupid) but our behavior to circumstantial factors (overworked, stressed).

 

 

G

G protein

Protein that activates 2nd messenger system.

GABA

Amino acid; has inhibitory effect. GABAa receptors are ionotrophic (short term); GABAb receptor are metabotropic (long lasting).

genital stage

Freud’s last period of psychosexual development; from puberty on.

generalization

Finding general laws; a goal of research.

genetic research

Study the influence of heredity on behavior.

Gestalt psychology

A loose collection of theorists, mostly following the work of Max Wertheimer.

group mind

The tendency for individuals to not express their opinions when a member of a group. Group membership can also change your opinions.

GABA

Gamma-aminobutyric acid; primary inhibitory neurotransmitter of the brain. Account for 9% of neural activity; the brakes for the brain.

galvanic skin response (GSR)

Measures skin resistance to an electrical current. When the autonomic nervous system triggers the release of sweat, skin voltage changes. Used as measure of stress or emotional arousal.

generalization

Moving from data to interpretation; induction. A major goal of research.

genetic predisposition

An inherited tendency for structural changes when triggered by environmental factors.

genital stage

Fraud’s last stage of psychosocial development. Begins at puberty.

germinal period

First 8 weeks of development; pre-embryonic.

Gestalt

Early school of psychology formed by Stumpf’s students. Focus is on perception as a whole; figure and ground, phi phenomenon, etc.

gestures

Nonverbal communication.

glutamate

Amino acid, main neurotransmitter, primarily excitatory effect.

Golgi apparatus

Organelle that processes proteins.

gradient of approach

For Dollard & Miller, the closer you get to something you like the better it looks.

grasping reflex

An infantile reflex where fingers or toes contract when stimulated.

ground of existence

According to Binswanger, we are free to choose within our “ground of existence” but limited by our “thrownness.”

group mind

According to McDougall, emotions become stronger in groups; the combination of individual instincts.

gustation

Taste system.

gyri

Gyrus is singular; bulges between adjacent sulci or fissures.

 

 

H

habit

For Hull, the tendency to respond. For Guthrie, well established movements. For Watson, personality

habituation

Getting used to a sensation or circumstance. Moving to a noisy neighborhood seems quieter when you get used to it.

hallucinations

A positive symptom of schizophrenia. Distorted perception, usually auditory but can be any sense.

halo effect

When you like one thing about a person, everything seems good too.

handwriting analysis

Pseudoscientific interpretation of how we write cursively or sign our names. Also called graphology.

hangovers

Symptoms of an overdose of alcohol.

happiness

An emotion of good feelings. Theories proposed by Aristotle (4 types) and Seligman (PERMA).

haptic perception

Perception of 3-dimensional objects through active touch.

head injuries

Categorized as open (skull broken) an closed (internal damage only).

hedonism

The pursuit of happiness, pleasure. The belief that pleasure equals goodness.

Heinz dilemma

Kohlberg’s hypothetical choice between letting your spouse die or committing a crime which would safe the life.

Hellenic Period (600-322 BC)

The emphasis during this time period was on the observable world. Extending up until Aristotle, the concern was in answering cosmological questions (e.g., what is the universe?).

Hellenistic Period

After the death of Alexander the Great and Aristotle, Greek philosophy spread to other parts of world, eventually carried everywhere by the Roman conquests in 30 BC.

here and now

According to Binswanger, people should focus on the present, not the past or the future.

heuristic function

Theories should lead to new discoveries. This theory-as-guide (heuristic) approach is speculative and selective. At each stage of discovery, diverse solutions are tried and the best of the available methods is selected. A heuristic theory emphasizes learning by discovery.

heuristics

Rule approach to a problem; fast process but no guarantee of success. Search for keys where you last were standing. In contrast to algorithms.

higher criterion

Practicing beyond minimum requirements. Practicing with heavier bats, running farther in practice sessions than race requires.

higher order conditioning

For Watson, complex behaviors are explained by combinations of simpler S-R connections.

hindbrain

Rear-most bump on neural streak. Becomes systems for regulating heart, etc.

hippocampus

C-shaped or S-shaped structures which lean toward each other as they curve from the temporal lobes to the frontal lobes. Essential for moving memories from short term to long term storage. Encodes locational and emotional tags too.

histamine

Diamine; inhibition of neurons; epinephrine eliminate; antihistamines stop release.

histological research

Examining brain tissue or tracing the paths of neural connections.

hodos

For Lewin, the regions of interpersonal space.

homeostasis

Balance in and between body systems.

homunculus

Motor cortex is organized like a puppet’s control center.

horizontal-vertical illusion

The tendency for people in Western cultures to overestimate the length of line presented vertically compared to the same line presented horizontally.

hormic psychology

Founded by William McDougall, the emphasis is on purposive behavior. Based on the Greek word “horme'” (urge), hormic psychology was a response to Watson’s behaviorism.

human reflexology

Bechterev description of psychology; behavior is completely explainable within a S-R (stimulus-response) format.

humanism

Third wave of psychology. A reaction to behaviorism. We are more than reflexes and conditioned responses; we are human.

humors

The belief that personality is related to a balance of bodily fluids (blood, bile, etc.).

hyper-alert

After a trauma or scary situation, the tendency to pay more attention to stimuli and settings to prevent more harm.

hyper-intention

Franks’s description of a neurosis where we stop ourselves from achieving our intended goals. We can’t achieve success because we sabotage ourselves.

hyper-reflection

Frankl’s description of when we think too much about ourselves and not enough given to our goals.

hypersomnia(

Excessive sleepiness.

hypotheses

Tentative by nature, hypotheses are statements of fact which can be empirically tested. A hypothesis is presumed to be true for the purpose of an investigation. It is a conditional statement used for a limited period of time.

hypothetico-deductive theory

Hull’s complex theory of learning, habit strength and intervening variables.

hypertension

High blood pressure; major cause of damage to BBB.

 

 

I

iconic memory

A buffer for visual information. Holds a lot of data but only for a short period of time. Easily fooled; only takes 24 fps to make realistic movies.

id

According to Freud, the id is one of three parts of the personality. Developing first, the id is unconscious and seeks immediate gratification.

ideas

Although people think, there is little agreement on how or why they do so. Although some thoughts, ideas and concepts may be innate, most are thought to be the result of mental activity. Innate ideas, if they exist, are build-in ways to percieve and act.

identification

For Freud, the function of the ego is to match the internal need with an external object.

identity

One of Fromm’s basic needs (uniqueness).

illusions

A result of biases in our perceptual system. Gestalt psychology used them to show the cognitive rules we use; mostly visual illusions.

imagery

Mental representations of visual and spatial information.

imageless thought

Thoughts were considered to be miniature images of external objects. Thought without images was a radical change in philosophy.

impermeable

Can’t cross membrane.

implicit memory

A function of the Limbic system; skills are developed slowly, go away slowly. Not part of declarative memory.

impulse

The initiating force; need seeking; burst of energy (nerve impulse).

impulse control

A function of the prefrontal cortex of the frontal lobes. Slow development of the brain or brain damage can lower the ability to control emotions and actions.

impressions

Just as pressure can leave a visible mark on objects (e.g., pencil on paper, chisel on stone), mental experience leaves an impression. Similar to memory but suggesting an emotional imprint.

incentive

Promised reward.

incidental learning

Learning without trying. Effective but unpredictable.

incompatible responses

Guthrie’s method for breaking association bonds by substituting a more desireable response for an undesireable response (e.g., chewing gum instead of smoking).

incompatible response

Can’t do two things at once; sneeze and keep your eyes open, smoke and chew gum, relax and be stressed.

incubation

A problem solving technique. Think about for awhile; let it perk.

independent variable

What an experimenter manipulates; it is independent of the subjects.

individual differences\

Psychology typically describes and bases its theories on group tendencies. Individual differences (i.e., characteristics and patterns of ability) are of great interest to psychology but are thought to be too complex and outside psychology’s emphasis.

individual psychology

Adler’s psychodynamic theory

inductive reasoning

Bottom-up.

inductive reasoning

Reasoning from specifics to general principles. This method of reasoning was favored by Francis Bacon.

industry vs inferiority: competence

Erikson’s 4th stage of development. It is a battle between work accomplishments and feelings of inadequacy. If you complete this stage, you gain a sense of competence.

infantile amnesia

Can’t remember first 2 years of life or so; no storage built yet In brain.

infantile reflexes

Reflexes which occur when an infant but disappear as the nervous systems override them. Reappearance in adulthood can indicate brain damage.

inference

In research, we don’t prove things, we infer cause and effect.

inferior

Toward the bottom of the body.

inferiority complex

Adler’s term for feelings of inadequacy.

information processing

The first cognitive theory; uses the computer as a metaphor for mental processes.

initiative vs guilt: purpose

Erikson’s 3rd stage of development. It is a battle between independent initiative and inactive guilt. If you complete this stage you gain a sense of purpose.

inner ear

Where the cochlea and semicircular canals reside. Fluid filled matrix.

insanity

Legal term, not psychological. Unable to handle own affairs, aid in their defense, or be responsible for their actions.

insight

The sudden discovery of a concept or truth.

instincts

Unlearned, innate patterns of response.

instrumental conditioning

Also called operant conditioning. Skinner’s conditioning where we are instrumental in getting rewards. Active responders to the environment.

intellectual development

Learning to think. Piaget’s is the best known theory of intellectual development.

intelligence

Although intelligence is conceptualized as the ability to acquire and use knowledge, it is most often operationally defined in terms of test scores. Galton described it an a single entity, inheritted biologically, and measured by reaction time tests. For Binet, intelligence was a cluster of abilities influenced by environment. The intelligence ratio (coined by Lewis Terman) or intelligence quotient was originally proposed as the ratio of mental age to chronological age. Subsequently, the intelligence quotient (IQ, also coined by Terman) has been derived by comparing individual performance to group norms. Debate still rages on the nature of intelligence (general ability or a cluster of specialized faculties), and the relative importance of heredity and environmnet. Thorndike proposed 3 types of intelligence: abstract, social, and mechanical. For Thorndike, Abstract intelligence (also called abstract reasoning) is the ability to manipulate words and concepts. For Piaget, abstract thinking is the ability to discuss hypothetical situations and the systematic solution of problems.

intensity

Borrowed from physics, intensity is the amount of a force (electricity, heat, sound).

interactive images

To remember items, visualize two or more interacting in some way. A technical mnemonic.

interpersonal fields

Borrowed from physics, fields are regions of space or force. According to Sullivan, a field of interpersonal relations surrounds each individual.

inter-stimulus interval

Amount of time between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus.

interval scale

A measurement scale with equal steps but no absolute zero. Getting zero on a spelling test doesn’t mean you can’t spell anything, just not those words.

introspection

In theology and philosophy, the term is used a self contemplation. As used by early experimental psychologists, introspection was the observation (usually by trained individuals) on the internal processes and structures impacted by the presentation of a perceptual stimulus.

intuition

The feeling you know something or should make a particular decision; gut feeling. Probably caused by risk assessment of the prefrontal cortex.

involuntary attention

The unplanned concentration of mental focus; usually the result of a sudden stimulus presentation (e.g., loud noise).

involuntary response

Reflexes and autonomic responses; not voluntary.

ion

When # of electrons is different from # of protons.

ionic bond

When particles stick together.

IQ

Intelligence quotient. An estimate of knowledge or ability, based on test scores. Mostly a measure of vocabulary. Highly reliable measure.

ipsilateral

Same side.

irradition

For Pavlov, the spread of effect to other parts of the brain; stimulus generalization.

irreversible reactions

Once changed, always changed.

Islam

The religion based on the life and teachings of Mohammed.

islands of memory

Just as there are forgetting holes (things you just can’t remember), there are memory islands (things you learned easily and still recall).

isomorphism

Similarity of forms or structures; for Wertheimer, apparent motion occurs in the brain but appears to be external.

 

 

J

jackpots

Unexpectedly large rewards given for target behavior; increases variable ratio schedule’s impact. Works with slot machines, dog biscuits and hugs.

jamais vu

Less common memory error than deja vu; don’t recognize familiar word or setting. Can be caused by epilepsy or over exposure (brain fatigue) at seeing a stimulus repeated in a short period of time.

James-Lange theory of emotion

Initially formulated by C.G. Lange (a Danish physiologist) and revised and popularized by William James, this theory maintains that emotion is a result of action (I see the bear, I run, I feel fear).

Jimmy

The popular name for William James’ shortened version of Principles of Psychology.

jnd

The just noticeable difference (jnd) is that point at which an individual can detect changes in pressure, weight or temperature.

just-world hypothesis

Belief that world is fair; people get what they deserve. Good things happen to good people; bad things in your life because you are bad.

 

 

K

kinetic cues

Feedback signals from muscles and joints indicating movement and location.

Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning

A variation on Piaget’s cognitive reasoning, Kohlberg proposed 2 stages in each of 3 phases. These six stages progress toward more cognitive and internal processing. Moral reasoning is necessary for ethical behavior but is not solely responsible for it.

Korsakoff’s syndrome

A neurological disorder caused by lack of thiamine (B1), often the result of alcoholism.

 

 

L

labels

A type of stereotyping where we or others use one event or characteristic to judge us as angry, failure, unlovable. Can be used with positive characteristics (smart, talented, never anxious).

language development

Study of how we acquire language. In early childhood, language development correlated with motor development.

latency

A period of dormancy.

latency stage

Fraud’s 4th stage of psychosocial development. Just before puberty; not much is going on.

latent inhibition

In classical conditioning, a term to explain why conditioning to something familiar is harder. Use bell or clicker because they are unusual cues.

lateral

Toward the side.

laws

Well established relationships or rules whose truth are beyond doubt (e.g., gravity, entropy, etc.). Artistotle proposed three laws of suggestion: contiguity, resemeblans, and contrast. Hume proposed 3 laws of association: contiguity, resemblance, and causality. Thorndike proposed three laws of learning: readiness, exercise and effect. The Law of Readiness says subject must be able to perform task (e.g. cat must be hungry). According to the Law of Exercise practice strengthens bonds, Disuseweakens them. The Law of Effect says consequences of a behavior strength (or weaken) the S-R bonds.

learned helplessness

Learn there is no reason to try, the system is rigged against you. Takes multiple positions examples to counter.

lens

Accounts for ⅓ of eye’s focus. Get cloudy with age (cataract).

levels of measurement

How we use numbers. Nominal; numbers as labels or categories. Ordinal; rank ordering. Interval; equal steps, no absolute zero, test results. Ratio; numbers as numbers.

lexical retrieval

When can’t recall, go through alphabet; does it start with A, B, etc.

LGN

Part of thalamic system. 90% of visual info passes through on way to occipital lobe.

life instincts

According to Freud, the strongest life instinct is sex.

life lie

Alder’s description of building your life around a false belief.

life space

For Lewin, how you perceive the world; the totality of existence.

linear perspective

Monocular cues for depth perception. Lines that converge in the distance.

Little Albert experiment

The child Watson classically conditioned to fear animal (stuffed and real).

lobotomy

Removal of brain tissue of frontal lobe as treatment for schizophrenia or neurological disorder.

localization

Finding where sound is coming from.

locomotion

For Lewin, the movement from region to region.

locus of control

Ritter’s proposal that people differ in their view of  how much control they have over life. Internal vs. external control.

logotherapy

Frankl’s therapeutic approach; discover your meaning in life.

loneliness

According to Fromm, the deepest fear of people is loneliness.

longitudinal

Study same people over time (usually months or years).

 

 

M

M1

Motor cortex; controls voluntary movements.

magical number 7

George Miller’s description of short term memory as contains 7 items (or chunks) plus or minus two.

mandala

A symbolic geometric pattern used in Hinduism and Buddhism.

masculine protest

Originally presented as a description of how men who feel unmanly and inferior strive to be strong and powerful. Later, Adler used it to describe the anger of women forced to play feminine roles.

mass action

Lashley showed that the brain works as a coordinated whole, the “brain fields” of the Gestaltists do not exist.

matter

According to the ancient Greek philosophers, matter is the formlessness which creates form and substance. In physics, matter can take the form of solid, liquid and gas.

materialism

It is either the excessive emphasis on things (often to the detriment of relationships with others), or it is the philosophy that matter is reality (thoughts, concepts, and emotions must be defined in terms of physical processes).

medial

Toward the middle.

membrane

Film-like divider (cell membrane).

melatonin

Released by pineal gland, helps regulate sleep.

memory

The input (encoding), storage and retrieval (recall) of facts and concepts.

meninges

3 layers of tissue that encase CNS.

mental chemistry

John Stuart Mill proposed that the mind is more active than a mechanical explanation would allow but less active than free will. For John Stuart Mill, the development of the mind is like chemical processes.

mental mechanics

James Mill conceived of the mind as the passive result of mental mechanics.

mental orthopedics

Alfred Binet advised the use of mental exercises to help form and reform the mind.

mental set

A term introduced by Karl Marbe. When prior experience affects subject’s current judgments, they are said to be responding with a mental set. Having generated a rule to solve prior problems, they continue to use the rule on current problems.

mental tests

The term was coined by James McKeen Cattell to describe the perceptual and mental measurements he and Galton used.

mentalism

The belief the mind has special powers, including clairvoyance, levitation, and mind reading.

melancholic

During the Hellenic Period, Hippocrates described personality by relating it to bodily fluids. A melancholic personality was one with a sad temperament, the result of too much black bile.

metaphysics

The study and philosophy of reality and its components.

method of loci

Technical mnemonic pairing items with locations. Also called the journey method.

micro-expressions

Quick responses before can control facial expressions. Surprise is a good example.

Middle Ages

As the population grew and became more prosperous, the social classes of feudal western Europe (clergy, aristocracy, and peasants) brought about a new social class (skilled craftsmen).and the establishment of universities.

middle ear

Air-filled area between the tympanic membrane and the inner ear. Contains 3 small bones which amplify sound waves.

mind

The source of one’s conscious thoughts, memories, will and emotions, currently believed to reside in the brain.

mind-body problem

Deciding if we are composed of two separate parts (duelist), only biology (physical monism) or only spiritual (spiritual monism).

mirror drawing

Task to measure implicit memory. Can’t see hand directly, only see what writing by looking in a mirror. Get better with practice.

mitwelt

One on Binswanger’s 3 modes of existence; with world.

mnemonics

Techniques which improve memory encoding.

models

Models are theories or parts of theories which have been converted into measurable variables. Modeling is the process of converting constructs to variables for empirical testing.

monad

According to Leibnitz, this is the smallest particle of reality.

monism

The philosophy that a single system can explain everything (mind, matter, will, etc.).

monocular cues

Depth perception cues which only require one eye to see.

mood

Strong stimuli which change quickly but seem important to us.

mood disorders

Most commonly depression but also include anxiety.

moral anxiety

One of Freud’s 3 types of anxiety; overactive superego (punish self for minor infractions).

moral development

The process of learning to make moral decisions.

Morgan’s cannon

C. Lloyd Morgan’s scientific rule of thumb (cannon): use the simplest explanation available.

morula

A solid ball of 16-32 cells. Next step is a hollow ball of 64 cells, a blastula.

motion

Hobbes maintained reality is matter and motion (change).

motivation

Internal reasons for behavior.

motor cortex

On the top and side of brain in the frontal lobes. Controls voluntary movement.

movement

One of Locke’s primary qualities; for Guthrie, a collection of behavioral responses.

MRI scan

Brain scan using magnetic fields and radio waves. Used to look for tumors and structural damage.

Muller-Lyer illusion

Two identical lines are presented, one with arrows at each end, one with reversed arrows at each end. Normal arrows make line look shorter.

myasthenia gravis

An autoimmune disease that disrupts the motor nerves, including the eyes and limbs. No cure.

myelin sheath

Schwann cells repeated wrap around axons, covering them with myelin, insulating them.

 

N

naïve mnemonics

Mnemonic techniques we do without training, including repetition, chunking and visualization.

narcissism

An exaggerated interest in one’s self.

narcolepsy

Sleep disorder where fall suddenly into REM sleep.

nativism

Either that the mind has innate ideas or that it forms ideas independent of its environment.

natural selection

An explanation of evolutionary change; survival is selection by nature (having the necessary characteristics to survive in a changed environment).

needs

Anything necessary for biological or psychological survival. Maslow proposed a need hierarchy (from biological needs to self-actualization).

negative ion

More electrons than protons.

negative punishment

Punishing by removing something good (take away car keys).

negative symptoms

Symptoms of schizophrenia that are seen in other conditions; not unique to schizophrenia.

negative reinforcement

Rewarding by removing something bad (cancel debt).

neonate

First 28 days after birth.

neurons

Cells which compose nerves.

neuro-chemical research

Analyzing the chemical components and processes of synapses; identifying neurotransmitters.

neuroses

Disorders that are not caused by organic issues.

neurotransmitter

Chemicals released by neurons which trigger other neurons.

nicotinic receptors

Polypeptides which respond to nicotine and acetylcholine.

nihlism

According to Heidegger, being deprived of meaning.

nine dot problem

A task used to test creativity. Solution requires thinking outside the constraints.

nitric oxide

Gas, signaling molecule, causes vasodilatation.

NMDA

Type of glutamate receptor, impacts memory and plasticity; blocked by alcohol.

nodes of Ranvier

Gaps between myelinating Schwann cells.

nominal scale

Using numbers as ID numbers or labels.

nondirective therapy

Roger’s client-centered therapy was originally called “nondirective therapy”.

nonsense words

For Ebbinghaus, words which have no contextual meaning (a list of unrelated items).

norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter and hormone derived from dopamine. Helps focus attention.

normal curve

Symmetrical mountain of scores; frequency distribution.

NREM

Any non-REM stage of sleep.

nystagmus

Involuntary eye movements which result in poor vision.

 

 

 

O

object

An actual item in the real world.

object recognition

The study of which characteristics allow us to identify an object by vision.

object relations

Neofreudian theory of how people emotionally interact with people and objects.

object substitution

Since the image the id creates is unconscious, the ego searches reality to find an object which can substitute for the id’s image.

observation

Each clinical session or research data point in an observation. It is a neutral term to keep us away from using flowery or imprecise language.

observational learning

Bandura’ s research on how we learn by watching others.

obsessive-compulsive disorder

An excessive need to be clean, orderly and free of uncertainty. Washing your hands hundreds of times a day interferes with your life.

occipital lobe

The region at the back of the head. It processes vision and visualization.

odds

Think of it as a team sport; 12 people on their side and 6 on ours would be 12:6 or 2:1 against us.

Oedipus complex

According to Freud, boys (by the age of 5 years old) have sexual desire for their mothers, fear castration from their fathers, and resolve the conflict by becoming more like their fathers. This process was named for the Greek play Oedipus Rex.

olfaction

Smell. Difficult to research because it adapts quickly and replaces cells frequently.

one-shot learning

According to Guthrie, indivicual movements are learning on the first pairing; learning appears to be gradual because there are so many possible combinations of S-R pairings.

operant

Any behavior that operates (interacts) with the world.

operant conditioning

Skinner’s theory of the impact of rewards and punishments on behavior. Behavior is emitted, then a consequence occurs.

operational definition

In research, defining variables in terms of what is done. Love is defined as a multiple choice test or brain wave or verbal statement.

ophthalmoscope

A tool used to measure and study the eye.

oral stage

According to Freud, the first stage of psycholosexual development (birth to 18 months). If fixated at this stage, gullible (swallow anything) or sarcastic (biting).

ordinal scale

Level of measurement with unequal steps and no absolute zero. Ranking.

orthogonal

Independent of each other; 90 degrees.

osmosis

flow of fluid from high to low concentration (sort of diffusion for liquids)

ossicular chain

Three little bones in the middle ear, amplify sound waves.

outer ear

The part you can see; what you typically call the ear.

overcompensating

Alder’s term for over-correcting for a weakness.

overlearning

For Ebbinghaus, continuing to study after a list has been learned error free.

ovum

Female  egg

 

 

P   1 of 85

pain

parallelism

The belief that the mind and body are correlated but causally linked.

parachute reflex

paradoxical cold

paranoid

parasympathetic nervous system

parataxic

One of Sullivan’s 3 modes of experience; the development of superstitions and relationships.

parietal

away from organ

parietal lobe

Parkinson’s disease

partial recognition

partially reinforced behavior

passive touch

Pavlov’s classical conditioning

peg system

penis envy

According to Freud, the conflict a girl feels when she discovers she has no penis.

peptides

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

permeable

easily crossable membrane

person schema

persona

According to Jung, the self can take the form of a mask, a public personality.

personal unconscious

personal validation fallacy

personification

According to Sullivan, complex dynamisms composed of feelings, attitudes and self images.

PET scan

phallic stage

According to Freud, the psychosexual stage at which the Oedipus complex occurs.

phi phenomenon

The apparent motion of lights when flashed sequentially (e.g., lights on theater marquees).

phila

Brotherly love.

phlegmatic

During the Hellenic Period, Hippocrates described personality by relating it to bodily fluids. A choleric personality was one with a slow temperament, the result of too much phlegm.

phobias

phonological loop

phrenology

The belief that variations in the skull indicate mental processes and personality characteristics.

physical attractiveness

physical monism

physiological zero

pineal gland

Descartes thought to be the place where the soul resides, this gland id now thought to be one’s seasonal and daylight biological clock.

placebo

pleasure principle

The underlying rule the id uses is to find pleasure, immediately.

Pollyanna effect

positive ion

more protons than electrons

positive punishment

The giving of something bad.

positive regard

positive reinforcement

The giving of something good.

positive symptoms

positron emission tomography (PET)

post-traumatic stress

postulates

Postulates are formal assertions of truth presented as a basis of argument. More narrow than a presupposition, postulates can be implied or stated as a premise.

practical memory

practice effects

pragnanz

Literally, good form; the Gestalt principle which states that perceptions tend to organized in best form (e.g., abstract figures are described in terms of concrete objects and shapes).

pragmatism

The term was coined by C.S. Peirce but popularized by William James. James’ lectures of the subject were published in 1907 (Pragmatism: A New Name for Old Ways of Thinking) and were widely read. For James, ideas should be testable. Untestable theories are meaningless, or at least useless. Truth must be testable. Consequently, an idea is true if it works.

pre-coding

pre-conscious

One of Freud’s 3 levels of consciousness (conscious, unconscious, pre-conscious); partly aware of one’s own processes.

precision

hit something consistently (reliability)

products

outcomes after a reaction

profound

deep (internal)

premotor cortex

preoperational stage

For Piaget, the stage at which children acquire language (ages 2-7).

pressure

Light pressure in reported by receptors close to the skin; deep pressure is reported by receptors deep in the skin.

primary distinctiveness

Contextual distinctiveness; one of these things is not like the others. Also called the von Restroff effect, named for Hedwig von Restroff. An isolation effect. In long lists, a word written in a different color, size or font is remembered better than the rest of the list, AND the entire list is better remembered. Functionality, it divides the long into two shorter lists.

primary drives

primary process

The process by which the id makes an image of what it desires.

primary rewards

priming

primitive streak

primordial images

principles

When basic truths has some predictability, they are called principles. These elemental rules can describe a fixed social policy or a function of natural science.

principles of efficiency

proactive interference

problem solving

procedural memory

programmed instruction

A method of instruction based on Skinner’s behaviorism; small instructional steps, each followed by immediate feedback.

projection

One of Freud’s defense mechanisms; attributing one’s characteristics to others (e.g., finding one’s faults in others).

projection area

prolactin

peptide hormone, regulates lactation, testosterone, etc.

proprioceptive stimuli

According to Guthrie, stimuli produced by muscle movement.

prospective memory

protaxic

According to Sullivan, flowing sensations.

prototypical items

proximal

close to center

proximity

A Gestalt principle of grouping by closeness in time or space.

psyche

The soul or spirit. In Latin, psýchê; in Greek psukhê.

psychic birth

psychic dynamics

The interaction of psychic forces, according to Herbart.

psychic secretions

Pavlov’s term for a conditioned response.

psychoanalysis

psychodynamic

psychosexual stages of development

According to Freud, people develop in a series of fixed stages, each of which involves both sexual and psychological factors.

psychotic disorders

punishment

Anything which tends to reduce the frequency of behavior.

purposeful behaviorism

According to Tolman, behavior is purposeful, goal directed, and molar (not reducible to instincts or reflexes).

puzzle-box

Thorndike’s apparatus for studying problem solving in animals.

Pythagorean theorem

Proposed by Pythagorus (6th century BC), it is the mathematical rule that the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the squared-sides.

Q

quality

For Locke (as learned from Robert Boyle), quality is the producer of ideas. Locke differtiated between primary (essential perceptual components such as shape) and secondard qualities (less important elements such as taste). For Titchener, quality is the distinguishing characteristic of an experience

 

R     17 of 59

radiation-fortress problem

random assignment

random selection

ratio scale

rational emotive behavioral therapy (REBT)

rationalism

The philosophy of reason; the belief that truth comes from reason (not from empirical evidence or spiritual revelation).

rationalization

Added by Ernest Jones (a follower of Freud) as a defense mechanism; excuse for poor performance.

reactants

components before a reaction

reaction formation

In this Freudian defense mechanism, the individual does the opposite of what they want to do.

reactions

changing one substance to anotherreal self

reality anxiety

According to Freud, the concern which comes from real problems.

reality principle

The ego works on the reality principle; interacting with the objective world.

reason

The use of logic; a function of the mind.

recall

The retrieval part of memory.

recency effect

receptive field

receptor cell

reciprocal determinism

recognition

recollection

Perception is the collect of sensations; memory is their re-collection.

recording brain activity

collecting and analyzing electrical impulses or secretions of the brain

reduction

finding a simpler explanation; a goal of researchreduction mnemonic

reflex

In general, any automatic (involuntary) response. Alexander Bain was among the first to differentiate between voluntary and reflexive behavior. The Hering-Breuer reflex:shows that there are receptors in the lungs which automatically control respiration. Motor reflexes include muscle movements such as knee jerk, etc.

reflexology

refraction

refractory period

regions

For Lewin, areas of relationship; parts of self.

regression

Going back to something. In Freudian thought, regression to a previous psychosexual stage. In research, going back to a straight line drawn through the data points.

rehearsal

rehearsed mnemonic

reincarnation

reinforcement

In education, reiteration of teachings. In Skinner’s model, anything which occurs after a behavior which tends to increase the likelihood of its reoccurring.

reinforcement value

relative brightness

relative refractory period

relative size

reliable

get same or similar result every time (broken clock)

REM

remember

replication

repression

reminiscence

Memory; to recollect the past.

research goals

specific goals vary with each study but there are to global goals: generalization and reduction

resemblance

Similarity. One of Hume’s 3 laws of association.

response

responsibility

restless legs syndrome (RLS)

retention

The amount of facts memorized. Ebbinghaus provided the first experiemental description of a retention curve (the amount of recall over time).

retentive

For Freud, the tendency to not express emtions, particularly at the anal stage of development.

retinal disparity

retinitis pigmentosa

retrieval

retroactive interference

retrograde amnesia

reuptake

reversible reactions

can go back to original statereward

robust

works on wide range of tasks

rods

rooting reflex

Rorschach’s ink blot test

rostral

toward the nose

rotating disc

round window

rule of thumb

Rumplestiltskin effect

 

 

 

 

S          35 of 130-ish

salty

sand tray

sanguine

During the Hellenic Period, Hippocrates described personality by relating it to bodily fluids. A sanquine personality was one with a cheerful temperament, the result of having enough blood.

savings

For Ebbinghaus, the number of time needed to relearn a list.

scalloped

The pattern of response usually seen in fixed interval schedules of reinforcement; little activity until just prior to approximate time reinforcement is available, followed by high levels of response until reinforcement is received.

schedules of reinforcement

For Skinner, patterns of response related to when reinforcement is given. Types include: continuous (reinforcement of every correct response), fixed interval (given for a correct response after a set period of time), fixed ratio (given for a correct response after a set number of correct responses), variable interval (given for a correct response bafter a varying period of time), and variable ratio (give for a correct response after a varying number of correct responses).

schema

schizophrenia

scientific method

scripts

secondary attention

secondary distinctiveness

secondary drives

secondary process

According to Freud, the ego’s control of action is secondary to the id’s primary process of creating images it desires.

secondary rewards

secret self

self

The essence of a person. William James differentiated between self as knower (internal knowledge) and self as known (the self other people know). Willaim James used Self as Knower and Self as Known to differentiate between the view we have of ourselves and the view others have of us.

self as knower

self as known

self-actualization

According to Maslow, the highest level of personal development.

self-awareness

Being conscious of one’s desires, interests, and processes. George Herbert Mead emphasized self awareness as a function of psychological evolution.

self concept

self contract

self schema

self-concept

self-control therapy

self-deception

self-effacing bias

self-reinforcement

The rewards one gives to one’s self; internal motivation.

self-regulation

self-soothers

self-talk

self-terminating search

semantic memory

semantic network model

semicircular canals

semi-permeable

somewhat difficult to cross membrane

sensorimotor

According to Piaget, the first two years of life are spent developing motor control. In this sensorimotor stage of development, thinking is limited to gaining control of the body and developing language.

sentiment

According to McDougall, this is the tendency toward action caused by two or more instincts being attached to the same object.

serial position effect

serial recall

serotonin

sex

shadow

The darker side of nature. Instincts held over from lower forms. Past animal nature.

shaping

sidetracking

Avoiding stimulus cues which produce undesirable responses (e.g., staying away from the bad crowd; moving to start a new life).

similarity

simultaneous conditioning

sinister

left

size

skepticism

They maintained that sensory information couldn’t be trusted. They also mistrusted Plato’s concept of pure form.

skin mapping

Skinner box

A name given by others to Skinner’s experimental apparatus; a container which allows the subject free movement, limited correct response mechanisms (e.g., level), and systematic control of stimuli and schedules of reinforcement.

sleep apnea

sleep disorders

sleep phase

sleep routine

sleep talking

sleep terror

sleepwalking

social adjustment

social animals

social cognition

social influence

social intelligence

social interest

Adler’s theory of social interest was optimistic and nativistic. He held that people are innately disposed to be social and that they are tied to others through their occupations, general societal obligations, and love. As people grow, they become other directed.

social learning theory

social network

soma

cell body

somatic research

change brain, observe behavior

S-O-R

Woodworth’s dynamic psychology emphasized the importance of the O (organism), as well as the stimulus and response.

soul/spirit

Used interchangably, the soul or spirit is eternal element of human life, composed of mind, will, emotion, etc.

sounds like

sour

source amnesia

span of apprehension

sparse encoding

spatial summation

speech recognition

specific response relationship

According to Holt, learning is a molar, purposive process where one learns an entire response relationship (e.g., walking), not just segments of the process.

Spencer-Bain principle

Behavior will increase if followed by pleasure, decrease if followed by pain.

sperm

spiritual monism

Berkeley’s defense against atheism, and the idea that all that exists is physical, and our reality is all in our mind. Bishop Berkeley proposed that all reality exists in the mind of God. In the mind-body problem, spiritual monism is all that exists is spirit (mind).

spontaneous recovery

The tendency for responses to return to higher levels of frequency after fatigue even though no reinforcement is given.

spreading activation model

spread of effect

For Pavlov, the tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response caused by adjacent neurons being impacted by the conditioning.

S-R

Stimulus-response.

stages of sleep

stamped in

For Thorndike, problem solving is not insight but trial and error until the correct response is discovered; the impact of the positive consequence which follows that discovery (law of effect) makes a permanent relationship (stamps in) between problem and solution.

stamped out

For Thorndike, learning is permanent unless erased by negative consequences after the response.

starts with the letter

state dependent learning

state variables

steps

stereocilia

stereopsis

stereotaxic surgery

using 3-D frame and orthogonal coordinates to perform ablation, biopsy, injections, stimulation, implantation, or radiation

stereotypes

For Sullivan, personifications people hold in common. For Pavlov (dynamic stereotyping), a neurological mapping of the environment.

stimuli

stimulus generalization

The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response.

stoicism

Since the universe is orderly, good and outside of our control, the Stoics asserted that we should be content with what happens. The Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius (AD 121-180) was a stoic.

stonewalling

stream of consciousness

William James conceived of consciousness as a constantly moving process, like a brook or stream.

stress

stress disorders

Stroop effect

structuralism

A school of psychology which looked for mental structures; primarily advanced by Titchener.

stupidity-misery syndrome

style of life

At various times, Adler used the term to describe individuality, style of creative, style of problem solving, and goal achieving behavior. He maintained that faulty life styles are the result of feeling inferior, being pampered as a child (causing the Oedipus complex), or by having been neglected.

subjective

subvocalized speech

For Watson, thinking is the behavior of talking to oneself at inaudiable (subvocalized) levels of sound.

sucking reflex

sucrose = glucose & fructose

suicide

summation

superego

Growing out of the ego as a function of parental and societal pressure, the superego is the third component of Freud’s personality model.

superficial

close to surface

superior

toward the top of the body

superior mirage

superiority complex

super-threshold stimulus

suppression

surprise

sweet

sympathetic nervous system

synapse

synaptic cleft

synaptic vesicles

syntaxic

One of Sullivan’s three modes of experiencing; use of words and numbers.

synchronicity = meaningful coincidences

synthesis

breaking big molecules into smaller ones

systems of psychology

Before WWII, psychology was divided into contrasting systems of thought. These orderly, systematic approaches have been replaced by more general, loosely organized movements.

systematic desensitization

 

T

tabula  rasa

Blank slate; lack of innate ideas. Rasa (nothing, blank) and tablua or tableau (from the French word “tablel,” a table or an area readied for painting).

tactile sensations

target detection

target identification

taste buds

taste cell

taste pore

technical mnemonic

telegraphic speech

temperament

For Fromm, the inherited, unchangeable aspects of one’s personality.

temperature

temporal lobe

temporal summation

tension

Pressure between forces. For Lewin, the disequilibrium between inner and outer realities. For Sullivan, psycholigcal tension is caused by needs or anxieties.

theory

More than a collection of facts, a theory is a systematically organized body assumptions, principles, rules and knowledge. Theories explain the pattern of relationships between observable events. Although they need not include formal propositions, theories summarize what is known and lay the base for future research.

therapy

thinking

thought elements

According to Buhler, non-sensory thoughts and processes.

threshold

For Guthrie, the gradual increase of stimulus strength without producing unwanted responses (e.g., gradually entering a pool to conqueor fear of water).

thrownness

According to Binswanger, thrownness is the life circumstances we can not

tip of the tongue phenomenon

tongue

tonotopic mapping

top-down processing

topology

For Lewin, the pattern of interpersonal fields, different for each person.

total time hypothesis

touch

trait theory

transduction

transfer of training

For Thorndike, learning new tasks is related to how similar they are to previously learned tasks.

transformational grammar

According to Chomsky, language is an innate capacity, subject to rules of transformational-generative grammar (i.e., it is produced creatively, not as a result of Skinner’s operant conditioning).

transient global amnesia

translation schemes

transpersonal

Extends across persons.

trial and error learning

For Thorndike, learning is not insight, but a process of trying all alternatives until a sucessful response is found.

tridimentional theory of emotion

Wundt’s theory that emotion can be charaterized by 3 dimensions: excitement-calm; pleasure-displeasure; and tension-relaxation.

trust vs distrust: hope

Erikson’s 1st stage of development. It is a battle between trusting others and finding them unreliable. If you complete this stage, you will gain the virtue of hope.

tunnel  vision

Loss of rods, leaves clear vision by cones but in a very restricted range.

tympanic membrane

Ear drum, separates outer ear from middle ear.

type A (Type I) alcoholism

Late onset, after age 25; characterized by binge drinking. Stereotypical alcoholism. Equally common in men and women.

type B (Type II)

Early onset, before age 25; worse if before age 16. More genetic, more men than women.

tyranny of should

Karen Horney maintained that we allow ourselves to be ruled by inflexible rules and the preferences of other people. We must make our own decisions.

U

umani (savory)

A taste we are sensitive to but often don’t experience as a separate taste.

unconditional regard

According to Rogers, total acceptance; unconditional positive regard.

unconditioned response

The natural response to a stimulus before conditioning (e.g., salivating at

unconditioned stimulus

The natural stimulus which produces natural responses (e.g. sight or smell of

unconscious

Introduced by Leibnitz, levels of conscious awareness of one’s motives and actions became part of Freud’s theory of personality. According to Jung, personal unconscious is nearest to conscious, and contains repressed and forgotten memories.

universities

A unified body or community of teaching/learning; an institution which offers graduate degrees.

unwelt

One of Binswanger’s three modes of existence; around the world.

u-shaped curve

Not linear. Two varieties rise together but one begins to fall as the other continues to rise. Stress and performance rise together but at some point stress continues to rise but performance falls.

utilitarianism

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) proposed that decisions should not be based on right and wrong but on the usefulness (utilitarianism) of the outcome.

 

 

 

V

vagina

In human females, a flexible, muscular canal or pocket which leads from the vestibule to the cervix.

valence

For Lewin, indicators of one’s wants and desires.

valid

measure what you think you’re measuring (working clock)

values clarification

A humanistic technique to clarify what is important to you.

variable interval

One of Skinner’s schedules of reinforcement; given for a correct response after a varying period of time.

variable ratio

One of Skinner’s schedules of reinforcement; given for a correct response after a varying number of correct responses.

variables

There are four main types of variables. Dependent variables depend on what a subject does. In contrast to a dependent variable (which is an outcome measure), independent variables are independent of the subjects. Independent variables are manipulated by the experimenter and often are hidden from the subject. Tolman introduced the intervening variable as a description of indirect influence. An intervening variable is caught in-between two other variables. State variables (a term introduced by Skinner) indicate initial, antecedent conditions before stimulation begins.

vectors

As used by LewBiosin, the impact of one’s wants and fears; vectors of psychic force.

ventricles

Hollow spaces in brain filled with cerebral-spinal fluid.

ventral

Toward the belly.

vibratuncles

According to Hartley, nerves transmit vibrations to the brain. Faint ideas and impressions are the result of faint vibrations; strong stimuli produce strong vibrations. Memory is the reactivating the original vibrations.

visceral

Close to organs.

vision

Converting light waves into images of the outside world.

 viso-spatial memory.

Also called visuo or visual sketch pad. Part of Baddeley’s model of working memory. Visual memory of objects and their position.

visual agnosia

Can’t remember or identify objects by looking at them

visual angle

how much of view object occupies

visual dead spot

Portion of eye where visual nerves exit. No receptors are there but the brain interprets what would be there by comparing hemispheric images and moving the eyes.

visualization

Using the same locations and internal processes as actual vision, making mental images. Like daydreaming.

volition

For Wundt, volition is the active process of the will. When ideas are added together, the result is not always the same. According to Wundt, the reason for the creative synthesis of ideas is the active participation of the mind. Wundt maintained that the mind is active but he was not a proponent of free

volley theory

A theory of hearing.

voluntary behavior

Things you choose to do. In contrast to reflexes and autonomic regulation.

Von Restorff effect

Also called primary or contextual distinctiveness. Anything inconsistent with its context. One word in red on a list written in black.

 

W

warm up

Getting your mind or muscles ready for the primary event. Taking a few practice swings, or solving a few math problems before a test.

Weber’s law

Although the concept was initially proposed by Ernst Weber, the majority of the work was conducted by Gustav Fechner. Weber’s law (also called Fechner’s law) shows a logarithmic relationship between stimulus strength and sensation.

well-defined problem

A problem with clear rules and limited movements. Chess is well-defined. 3-post Tower of Hanoi is well defined; 4-post is ill defined.

Weltanschaung

For Binswanger, the personal world each person develops.

will

The process of choosing; the part of the soul which makes deliberate decisions; a statement of intention.

working memory

Short term memory. Baddeley proposed it is composed of an executive process, phonological loop and visio-spatial sketchpad.

XYZ 

Yerkes-Dobson law

Stress and performance are not linear; a little stress helps, too much stress hurts performance.

Zeigarnik effect

Interrupted tasks are better remembered than completed tasks. Remember book plot while reading a chapter a night; finish book, forget what book was about.

zygote

Fertilized egg.

 

 

 

Copyright 2010-2023 Ken Tangen

 

 

 

Photo by Pisit Heng on Unsplash