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Reid, Thomas (1710-1796)
Like Hartley, Thomas Reid was the son of a minister. Although Reid’s uncle was a personal friend of Newton, Reid was not an empiricist. Reid’s rationalism was a reaction against Hume and a defense of commonsense thinking. Hume questioned reality because it is experienced only through our senses; Reid pointed out that real people know and deal with reality all the time. Clearly the mind knows more than its own processes, and actively organizes sensations. Reid’s “faculty psychology” included six intellectual powers: perception, judgment, memory, conception, moral taste and will. People have the ability (faculty) to actively interact with the world around them. This interaction is direct, and requiers no specialized philosophy; it’s simply naive realism.
Ribot, Théodule-Armand (1839-1916)
Rogers, Carl
More than anyone else, Carl Rogers (1902-1987) invented counseling. The vast numbers of counseling psychologists, marriage-family therapist and other mental health professionals are the product of his humanistic approach to therapy.
Like Freud, Rogers believed that actual experiences become symbolized. These symbolized experiences reflect all the characteristics of the actual experiences without all of the detail. It’s not so much what you experienced in the past as it is how you interpreted or feel about it.
In contrast to Freud’s distant, impersonal psychoanalysis, Rogers created an atmosphere of connection, warmth and acceptance. The emphasis was turned treating abnormal conditions to helping normal people with everyday problems. It went from impersonal medical terminology to less intimidating language. Patients became clients. Analysis became therapy or counseling. Rogers made counseling accessible.
And he changed the emphasis from analyzing defense systems to focusing on the client. Originally, Rogers called his approach “nondirective” therapy. The assumption was that clients were given no direction at all; they had complete control over the sessions. But, of course, Rogers did give subtle direction, so he later changed to a more accurate description of “client centered” therapy. Therapy should focus on the needs and goals of the client, not a pre-determined goal of the therapist. Consequently, a client-centered therapist is relatively weak (doesn’t give advice or homework) but guides the client toward self discovery.
Rogers stressed the importance of client-therapist relationship. The therapist should actively develop a strong relationship with the client through active listening, clarification and paraphrasing. This friendly attitude was in direct contrast to psychoanalysis, behaviorism and most other approaches. For Rogers, setting a warm, friendly environment was key to counseling success. Relationship allows clients to open up, put down their defenses, and feel safe. In the safety of a confidential relationship, clients could, many for the first time, experience unconditional positive regard.
Rogers differentiates between conditional positive regard and unconditional positive regard (total acceptance). In conditional positive regard, love is contingent on meeting a standard. “I will love you if…” Or often, “If you loved me, you’d….” When people make love contingent on your doing something for them (meeting their needs, acting according to their standards, etc.) their love is not fully free. In unconditional positive regard, you are accepted for you are; just the way you are.
Rogers assumed that people are basically good and mentally healthy. Although there are anomalies (mental illness, criminality, etc.), the natural tendency is toward growth and normalcy. The primary tendency is to maintain, enhance and grow. Growth is not automatic or effortless but it is the most likely outcome.
The key to understanding people is to understand the individual’s phenomenological field. Each person has their own perception of reality. So reality must be interpreted on an individual basis. An event is not as important as the individual’s interpretation of it.
It’s a relatively simple theory but can be widely applied. The short version is that reality isn’t as important as experience. Or, in reverse, what you see is more important that what exists. Your view-your unique take on the world-is important to understanding who you are.
Think of phenomenology as a house surrounded by miles of land. The house has several windows, each with its own unique view. How you experience reality depends on which window you use. Your view is restricted to size and shape of the window frame. Your “frame of reference” determines what you actually see. Reality may be objective (the collection of all the possible views) but each view is a limited and subjective interpretation of that reality.
In phenomenology, the events that occur in reality are not as important as how they are perceived by an individual viewer. The emphasis is not on what the various views share but on the individuality of each person’s perception. According to this view, it doesn’t matter if people are trying to harm you. What matters is what you think people are trying to do.
For Rogers, behavior is the result of people trying to reach goals. People try to meet their needs (as they perceive them), so how you feel about your needs, your life and yourself matters. Fortunately, there is an unconscious process (the organismic valuing process) that leads us toward productive growth. Although not well defined, this growth process provides intrinsically growth-producing experiences.
It’s not clear how this valuing process works or where it comes from. Presumably is a natural, innate process that doesn’t need to be activated or controlled. It does, however, need to be protected. According to Rogers, the organismic valuing process works very well, as long as it is not incapacitated by too many external rules and social values.
Emotions play a large role in Roger’s theory. The summary is: “Emotions facilitate behavior. ” That is, we act because we feel. So if we want to change how we act, we have to experience how we feel. In therapy, clients are encouraged to get in touch with their feelings and to express them. For many Rogerians, therapy is not a success unless the client feels deeply enough to cry.
In contrast to Freud’s id, ego and superego, Rogers is a self theorist. He believes that self gradually emerges, particularly from interactions with our significant others. We learn to become ourselves by interacting with others. We learn to love by experiencing love. We learn accept ourselves by being accepted by others.
Although others may only see our perceived self, we develop our own view of who we are: our “actual self”. The actual self is what we actually do; how we act from day to day. The perceived self (as perceived by others) may be that at night we read French literature by a roaring fire. But we know that our actual self eats chips and watches TV. The more our perceived self and actual self match, the more “congruent” our sense of self. In this context, congruence is the synthesis of self. Growth is combining the ideal self (who you want to be), the actual self (how you see yourself) and the real self (what you actually do) into a congruent whole.
Congruence also is the absence of inner tension. A congruent person is consistent and psychological well adjusted. When the perceived and real self differ, our experiences and emotions are ignored, distorted, and symbolized. This distortion process is subconscious, not unconscious. Subconscious suggests out of consciousness. In contrast, Freud’s unconscious suggests unresolved guilt and biological urges.
Parents should accept a child’s feelings, and shouldn’t threaten their self-concept. Self concept is a small but differentiated part of a person’s phenomological field. Although it comes, in part, through interacting with others, self concept is an object of perception: how we view ourselves. It is what we think our values are, which can be quite different from what our values actually are.
The disconnect between our real values and our self concept results in our experiencing anxiety. To avoid that anxiety, we often distort our view of reality (tell ourselves that society is not trying to influence us) or use denial (we are a rock that is uninfluenced by society).
Roger’s treatment for anxiety was to give unconditional positive regard. Unlike the conditioning love often given by parents (“You’re great if you do what you should do”), the therapist should give unconditional positive regard (“You’re great, no matter who you are”).
People have two basic needs: (a) positive regard by others, and (b) positive regard by self. Positive regard means being loved and accepted. Self-regard is loving yourself. For Rogers, positive self-regard is a natural consequence of receiving unconditional positive regard. To love you, someone else has to love you first.
When you have love (from others and of yourself), you have the foundation for becoming a fully functioning person. Rogers sees five aspects that characterize being “fully functioning.” First, you should be open to experience. Willing to try new things but also maximally enjoying the things you encounter. You don’t have to try every new cookie that comes your way but you should open yourself to experiencing the goodness of those you do sample.
Second, a fully functional person has experiential freedom. Instead of restricting your reactions or filtering your thoughts, you should experience live as it is. Don’t over think. Don’t restrict your emotions. Refuse to be uptight, overburdened and encumbered. Be free.
Third, live now. Live existentially. Existential living puts the focus on “here and now.” If you’re happy, be happy; don’t destroy your happiness by worrying about the way things could have been. Enjoy life as it is and as it comes.
Fourth, learn to trust yourself. This “organismic trust” unfolds over time. As you discover your competence, you learn to rely more on your judgment. No one knows your life as well as you do, so trust your instincts. Trust your real self, the inner you.
Fifth, a fully functioning person is creative. For Rogers, everyone is creative. You don’t have to draw, sculpt or paint. Creativity can be seen in your attitudes toward work, sports, politics, and virtually any activity. Being willing to look at life from different viewpoints. Try different options. Think outside the triangle (I wanted to be creative).
To help people become “fully functional,” Rogers developed a therapy that gives the client the freedom and responsibility of directing therapy. Originally entitled “nondirective therapy,” the idea is that the therapist should not impose on the growth tendencies and directionalness of the client.
Notice that it is “client,” not “patient.” Rogers believed that therapy should be as approachable as possible. Anyone and everyone should feel free to come to “counseling” because they aren’t sick (patients) but simply seeking help (clients).
For Rogers, behavior is learned, consequently symptoms (pathological behaviors) are learned. But Rogers doesn’t offer a learning theory to explain how to divert behaviors are originally learned, nor does he specify how learning new behaviors occurs. His theory operates on a higher level.
Rogers focuses on the macro aspects of education than the mirco processes of learning. The therapist-client relationship is like that of teacher-student. And therapy is a learning situation. But the key to personal growth is emotional, not rational. Growth will automatically occur when a client feels unconditional positive regard, expresses their emotions, and clarifies their feelings. It is the clients’ responsibility to direct the progress of therapy, to reach their own conclusions, and solve their own problems. It is the responsibility of therapists to provide a warm, accepting environment, and intervene only as much as is necessary to keep the client focused on their emotions.
Rommanes
Romanes, George John (1848-1894) George John Romanes (1848-1894) collected anecdotal material on the importance of animals. A friend of Charles Darwin, Romanes collected animal stories and attributed human characteristics to animals (anthropomorphism).
Rotter, Julian
Like other social learning theorists, Julian Rotter (1916-present) combines behaviorism plus cognition. What we know about the environment impacts what we do. And the best way to predict what people will do is to understand how they think.
Rotter maintains that the likelihood of a particular behavior is influenced by our cognition of rewards. Skinner was essentially right: we do respond to rewards but his system was to simple. We don’t turn off our brains when we’re rewarded. We use our brain power to make calculations about ourselves, the environment and rewards themselves.
There are three component parts to Rotter’s system. First, as Skinner would predict, we look at the size of the reward. We prefer big rewards over small rewards. Given a choice, we prefer to make more versus less money, bigger versus smaller houses, and faster versus slower cars. If we’re going to receive compliments, we want lots of people to give them. If we’re going to lose weight, we want everyone to notice. In general, we want the biggest reward we can get.
Second, there is the expectancy of the reward. We like rewards but we really like rewards we know we can get. We’ll turn down a bigger reward if a smaller reward is closer, faster or more of a sure thing. We do risk assessment and determine the likelihood of a receiving a reward. The reason we choose immediacy of rewards is they have a higher expectancy of coming true.
Rotter’s main point is that we combine our calculations of expectancy (likelihood) and reinforcement value (reward size). I don’t usually play the lottery but I know the likelihood of winning is very low. I don’t expect to win. But when the jackpot is over $20 million, I’ll buy a ticket…just one. I still don’t expect to win but I figure it’s worth the shot for a large prize. We will take a risk on a situation with low expectation if the reward it high. Similarly, we tend to settle for less reward if expectation is high. This explains why people stay is safe low-paying jobs, and why people stay in predictable unhappy marriages.
According to this model, if you believe your chances of getting a job paying $200,000 a year is 20%, the job is worth $40,000 to you. Consequently, you might well choose to apply for $50,000 jobs that you are 90% sure you can get. In your mental calculations, you’d be $5,000 ahead by going for the lower paying job.
Our experience isn’t that we’re making mathematical calculations. But we are aware of wrestling with security versus reward. We realize that there are many more jobs available at mid-management than upper-management. More available jobs means more likely. We know that actors who set out to be multi-billionaires probably won’t reach that goal. A few megastars make huge salaries but most actors make very little money. Rotter is suggesting that we are more rational than we realize. We use value and expectancy to make major life decisions.
We don’t behave randomly. We not only responders to Pavlovian stimuli or solely influenced by rewards. As our environment changes, we use rules to determine what to do. Even in novel situations, we apply our knowledge of the past to the current conditions. Rotter suggest that we have two basic, relatively stable rules: (a) the bigger the reward the better, and (b) safer is better.
Rotter’s approach is optimistic, goal-driven, and adaptive (interactive with the environment). You will notice that the likelihood of a particular behavior in a specific situation is based on subjective probabilities. We calculate what we think the odds of an event occurring. We don’t know what will happen; we make subjective guesses. Our inconsistencies in action show that from time to time we interpret the same situation differently.
Rotter expanded his concept of expectancy to a broader, more generalized expectation: locus on control. Although we calculate the likelihood of specific events, our general tendencies of calculation can be described. Life’s situations aren’t independent. We actually use a relatively stable set of potentials for responding to situations. Overall, we can be described as primarily relying on internal or external expectations (locus of control).
Our locus of control is our view of the contingency between what we do and what we get. If we have an internal locus of control, we tend to believe that what we do helps us get rewards. An “internal” tends to be more political, proactive, and optimistic. They assume they will be successful because expect their behavior to produce rewards. Consequently, internals try to gather more information, change their environment, and influence others. They are also more likely to be anxious. Since they believe what they do matters, they take responsibility for everything…whether it’s their fault or not.
In contrast, “externals” tend to conform, and don’t expect much of life. They believe life is a matter of chance, fate or luck. Externals tend not to take responsibility for anything. Since they believe that what they do doesn’t impact what they get, there is little reason to work too hard at changing the inevitable. They are more susceptible to what Selligman called “learned helplessness.”
S
Satire, Jean Paul (1905-1980)
Born in Paris, Jean-Paul Sartre’s philosophy is an unsystematic collection of plays and novels. Focusing attention of the meaning of existence, he concludes that there is no reason people should exist. But since they do exist, they should freely make their own decisions. Although Sartre stressed that decisions should be personal, unaided by religion, morality or society, he was active in the French Resistance during WWII. He believed that people should rebel against authority, and yet in his later years, Sartre moved from existentialism to social communism.
Schopenheimer, Arthur (1788-1860)
Sechenov Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov (1829-1905)
Skinner, BF
Born in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania, Skinner was an English major in college (Hamilton College) and then pursued psychology (at Harvard). In contrast to Hull, Skinner approached psychology inductively. He proposed an atheoretical methodology which preferred operational definitions to intervening variables.
Best known for his model of learning, Skinner emphasized the importance of what happens after a response. Not S-R, but S-R-C (stimulus-response-consequence), Skinner expanded Thorndike’s law of effect to an entire system of reinforcement.
In place of classical respondent conditioning, Skinner proposed operant conditioning. According to his model, behavior which is followed by a positive reinforcer (reward) is more likely to occur.
Conceding that there are too many stimuli to categorize, Skinner focused on the response and its consequence. Positive reinforcers increase behavior strength; positive punishment decreases behavior temporarily (as long as the punisher is present). Only extinction (the continued absence of a reward) decreases behavior permanently (e.g., if they stop paying you, you don’t go to work). Negative reinforcement (the removal of something bad) increases the likelihood of behavior and negative punishment (the removal of something good) temporarily decreases it.
Note that Skinner did not hypothesize drive, insight or any internal process. He didn’t necessarily deny their existence as much as thought them to be unknowable. For Skinner, if it didn’t impact behavior, whatever went on in the black box of the mind was unimportant.
Basing his findings on animal research (mostly rats and pigeons), Skinner identified five schedules of reinforcement: continuous reinforcement, fixed interval (FI), fixed ratio (FR), variable interval (VI) and variable ratio (VR). Continuous reinforcement is used to shape (refine) a behavior. Every time the subject performs the desired behavior, it is rewarded. Continuous reinforcement leads to quick learning and (after the reinforcement is stopped) quick descent.
Fixed Interval (FI) describes the condition where a certain amount of time must past before a correct response is rewarded (e.g., getting paid every two weeks). FI produces a “scalloped” pattern (the closer it gets to pay day the more often the proper response is given).
Fixed Ratio (FR) requires a certain number of responses to be made before a behavior is rewarded (e.g., 10 widgets must be made before you are paid). In Variable Interval and Variable Ratio schedules of reinforcement, the required amount of time or the number of responses varied. These partially reinforcement schedules (never quite sure when you’ll be rewarded) are quite resistant to extinction.
According to Skinner, rewards should be given appropriately. Parents should reward behaviors they want and ignore (extinguish) behaviors they don’t want. Giving attention to a child (such as when giving a punishment) actually rewards the child with your presence and sends a mixed message. Behavior can be shaped by rewarding successive approximations but practice without reinforcement doesn’t improve performance.
Skinner relied heavily on replication. His experimental evidence did not rely on statistical analyses or large subject pools. He performed carefully designed experiments with strict controls and simply counted the responses.
In an attempt to apply his research to practical problems, Skinner adapted his operant conditioning chamber (he hated the popular title of “Skinner box”) to child rearing. His “Baby Tender” crib was an air conditioned glass box which he used for his own daughter for two and a half years. Although commercially available, it was not a popular success.
During WWII, Skinner designed a missile guidance system using pigeons as “navigators.” Although his system was feasible, the Army rejected it out of hand. The PR problems of pigeon bombers must have been extensive.
Skinner’s also originated programmed instruction. Using a teaching machine (or books with small quizzes which lead to different material), small bits of information are presented in an ordered sequence. Each frame or bit of information must be learned before one is allowed to proceed to the next section. Proceeding to the next section is thought to be rewarding.
Small, Willard
Small, Willard S (1870=1943) The fourth person to impact animal research was Willard .S. Small. In 1901, he invented the animal maze. It became the first practical way to systematically test animal responses, and has been widely used to study physiological and psychological issues (including motivation, learning, and memory).
Socrates
Socrates (469-399 BC) Primarily known through Plato’s writings, Socrates is sometimes called the first social scientist because of his interest in ethics, economics, and aesthetics. He believed that thought came from the psyche (the spirit or soul of the individual). Tall, dark and handsome would not have described Socrates well. Short, dark and unattractive would have been closer. But his sharp mind, witty sense of humor, and unequaled speaking ability made him very popular. He preferred talking to writing, and spent much of his life in the marketplace of Athens. Socrates was more concerned with the nature of man than with the composition of matter. In 399 BC, Socrates was charged with interfering with the gods (a crime punishable by death). His continued reference to an inner voice was interpreted as demonic possession, and his teaching was thought to undermine the morals of Athen’s youth. Found guilty by a small majority, Socrates countered with an alternative sentence (as was customary). Instead of suggesting a serious alternative, however, Socrates offered to pay a small fine. They jury was not amused, and with increased majority sentenced him to die by lethal dosage of hemlock.
Solomon (990-931 BC)
King of Israel, Solomon (sometimes called Jedidiah) was the son of David and Bathsheba. Born and raised in Jerusalem. Although there are many stories of his fame, wealth, and 700 wives (not counting his 300 concubines). Formed many alliances with neighboring countries, including the Queen of Sheba. Best known for his wisdom, including offering to split a child in half to settle competing claims, revealing the actual motives of the two women. An example of wisdom literature, and honored as a prophet by several religions.
Solon (630-560)
About the time King Nebuchadnezzar II built the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, Solon (630-560BC) introduced democracy to Athens. Using a four-tier hierarchical structure based on wealth, each class of citizen had certain privileges and responsibilities.
Considered exceptionally wise (one of the Seven Wise Men of Athens), Solon introduced democratic principles to Athens. His version of democracy was not government by the people; it was more like nonbinding consultation between the rich and the people they rule.
Still, it was an improvement; indeed, Solon’s constitutional reform was a major and controversial step toward representative government. An aristocrat by birth, Solon expanded the government by excluding poor aristocrats and adding wealthy non-aristocrats. His approach was to use annual income to determine class status, instead of privilege by birth, which was the standard way of selecting leaders.
In 594 BC, the economy of Athens was in ruins and its people near revolt. The economy relied heavily on agricultural exports but failed crops and excessive exports of grain meant there wasn’t enough food for the Athenians. Farmers were forced into slavery to pay for their debts, and the poor wanted land reform and a redistribution of wealth. The rich wanted more power, and the aristocracy were splintered and unwilling to change.
Given enough power to reconstruct the economy, Solon could have established a tyrannical dictatorship. Instead, he gave everyone a new start. Solon freed the slaves, canceled all debts, limited exports to olive oil, and encouraged an occupational shift from agriculture to trade. Weights and measures were standardized, and loans couldn’t be secured with personal freedom as collateral. Solon also minted Athen’s first coin.
In order to determine class status, Solon instituted a forerunner of income tax. Citizens was required to specify their annual income and were then assigned to one of four social classes of the basis of their wealth. The basis of comparison was the medimni, which is approximately equivalent to a cubic foot of grain or 36 liters of wine. The wealthy (500 medimni or higher), the professional soldier with war-ready horse (300 medimni), the working class with a team of oxen (200 medimni), and the poor (less than 200 medimni). Office holders for the Council of 400 were selected from the top three groups but all 4 strata were able to attend the general assembly.
Although he didn’t do away with the social class distinctions, he imposed constitutional reforms that radically changed the way government operated. Thirty years after Dracon introduced strict written laws to Athens, Solon reformed the society to be more responsive to the peoples’ needs. He kept Draco’s distinction between premeditated and accidental murder, but eliminated the more “draconian” aspects of the law.
Solon’s laws were displayed on wooden tablets that revolved. Although his reforms didn’t go far enough to please the poor and went too far to please the aristocracy, Solon changed the basic structure of Athenian society and laid the foundation for the reforms of Cleisthenes.
Solon came to prominence through his poetry, which he used to inspire, instruct and convince Athenians to action. During the war with Megara, Solon wrote a poem that inspired Athens to rejoin the battle and win the war. It was this poem that made him famous. Having gained fame and influence through poetry, Solon used his literary skill during the reformation of Athens to convince others to accept his proposals. According to Plato, it was Solon who brought the myth of Atlantis to Greece, no doubt through a poem.
Spencer, Herbert, Herbert (1820-1903)
Born in working class Derby, England, Spencer was a working man. With no formal schooling, at age 17 he got a job on the railroad. Then, when he turned 28, he set off for London to become a journalist. After a stint as an assistant editor for The Economist, Spencer became a success working the freelance market. Spencer liked the idea of evolution. Basing his ideas on Lamarck, then on Darwin, he proposed evolution is an on-going process of differentiation. Life grows in complexity, and learning occurs by contiguity. For Spencer, when associations occur often enough, they can be passed on to the following generation. Like Bain, Spencer was a hedonist. They believed that pleasure increased the frequency of behavior. Known as the Spencer-Bain principle, it says that the probability of a given behavior occurring increases if it is followed by pleasure, and decreases if that behavior is followed by pain. In 1852, Spencer coined his best known phrase “survival of the fittest.” It was term Darwin later used himself.
Spinoza, Baruch (1632-1677)
Baruch (1632-1677)In contrast to Descartes’ separation of God, mind and matter, Baruch (Benedict in Latin) Spinoza proposed an integrated view. Not three separate entities; three aspects of one substance. Although raised in the predominantly Christian city of Amsterdam, and contrary to the teaching of his parents who were Portuguese Jews, Spinoza was basically a pantheist (God does not exist as a separate entity but is in everything). He believed that mind and body can’t be separated because matter and soul are the same thing but viewed from different points of view. Spinoza’s double-aspectism (mind-body are two sides of the same coin) was in contrast to the dualism of Descartes and others. Dualists held that the material mind and spiritual mind were independent but had to meet somewhere. Spinoza’s monism eliminated the conflict by reducing mind and matter to the same substance.
Stewart, Douglad
Douglad (1753-1828) Like Reid, Douglad Stewart was a Scottish common sense rationalist. In 1892, Stewart wrote Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind which included sections on perception, memory, imagination, language and thinking. It was still used as a text at Yale in 1824.
Stoics
Since the universe is orderly, good and outside of our control, the Stoics asserted that we should be content with what happens. The Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius (AD 121-180) was a stoic.
Stunpf, Carl
Influenced by Brentano’s act psychology, Carl Stumpf was Wundt’s major rival. Although he restricted his work to space perception and audition, Stumpf’s laboratory at the University of Berlin was a serious competitor to Wundt’s lab at the University of Leipzig.
Like Wundt, Stumpf used introspection as his primary method of investigation. Unlike Wundt, Stumpf didn’t require his assistants to be trained introspectionists. When researching the psychology of music, for example, Stumpf preferred trained musicians over trained introspectionists.
In a series of articles, Wundt and Stumpf argued the matter. Although it began as a theoretical discussion, it deteriorated into a personal, bitter dispute. The dispute may have been a continuation of their battle for a prestigious job (when Stumpf was selected over Wundt to follow Helmholtz at the University of Berlin).
Sullivan, Harry Stack
Born on a farm in upstate New York on February 2, 1892, Harry Stack Sullivan received his MD from the Chicago College of Medicine and Surgery, 1917. For most of his life, Sullivan served on hospital and medical school staffs, including St. Elizabeth’s in Washington, DC and the University of Maryland. At his death in 1949, he was the director of the Washington School of Psychiatry.
He published only one book during his life (Conceptions of Modern Psychiatry), but several volumes of his lectures have appeared posthumously.
According to Sullivan, people are surrounded by interpersonal fields, and must be understood within that context. Known for his interpersonal theory of human relationships, Sullivan used the concept of dynamism.
A highly complex dynamism which protects the individual from anxiety is called the self system. In a child this system is composed of good-me, bad-me and occasionally non-me dynamisms. The self system is Sullivan’s version of Freud’s superego.
Other complex dynamisms which are composed of feelings, attitudes and self images are called personifications. Personifications people hold in common are called stereotypes.
According to Sullivan, there are three modes of experience: protaxic (flowing sensations), parataxic (the development of superstitions and relationships), and syntaxic (the use of words and numbers). There also are two sources of tension: needs and anxiety. Needs are biological necessities, and anxiety is the result of real or imagined threats. The process of meeting one’s needs is described in Sullivan’s theory of personality development, which has seven stages, each one allowing the development of greater personal relationships.
Swedenborg Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772)
Sun Tzu (512-496)
Philosopher and military strategist, Sun Tzu is best known as the writer of Art of War. As a strategist and planner, diplomacy and are preferred. But battle theory and tactics are also discussed. Credited for helping unify China, Sun Tzu emphasized the importance of making and breaking alliances.
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